Earthquakes and Water

227 Pages·2009·7.401 MB·English

by  Chi-yuen Wang, Michael Manga (auth.)

Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences 114
Editors:
J.Reitner,Göttingen
M.H.Trauth,Potsdam
K.Stüwe,Graz
D.Yuen,USA
FoundingEditors:
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A.Seilacher,TübingenandYale
·
Chi-Yuen Wang Michael Manga
Earthquakes and Water
123
Prof.Dr.Chi-YuenWang Prof.MichaelManga
UniversityofCalifornia, UniversityofCalifornia,
Berkeley Berkeley
Dept.Earth&Planetary Dept.Earth&Planetary
Science Science
BerkeleyCA94720-4767 BerkeleyCA94720-4767
USA USA
[email protected] [email protected]
ISSN0930-0317
ISBN978-3-642-00809-2 e-ISBN978-3-642-00810-8
DOI10.1007/978-3-642-00810-8
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Preface
Distantearthquakesarewellknowntoinduceawiderangeofresponsesinsurface
water and groundwater. These responses are often viewed as mere curiosities as
theiroccurrenceislimitedinspaceandtime.Thefrequentemphasisonearthquake
precursorsinstudiesofthesephenomenaalsotendstopushthestudyof‘earthquake
hydrology’ away from the mainstream of geoscience. The observed phenomena,
however,probetheinteractionbetweenhydrogeologicalprocessesandmechanical
deformation in the shallow crust. Hence they provide insight into the interaction
among water cycle, tectonics, and properties of the crust. As such, the study of
earthquake hydrology alsohasthepotentialtoprovideamorequantitativeandin-
depth understanding of the nature of earthquake precursors and evaluate whether
theyareinfactprecursors.
The title of this book reflects the nature of the connections we address: we
focus on how earthquakes affect hydrology. Water also influences earthquakes
as it affects the strength of faults and the rheology of rocks. Our emphasis
here, however, is not on the hydrology of earthquakes, but on understanding
the hydrological phenomena induced or modified by earthquakes. The boundary
between the ‘hydrology of earthquakes’ and the ‘earthquake-induced hydrological
phenomena’, however, can sometimes be blurred. For example, triggered earth-
quakes are sometimes explained by a re-distribution of pore pressure following
the triggering earthquake. Hence, triggered seismicity may be an example of an
earthquake-induced hydrological phenomenon. The study of the latter, therefore,
canbeimportanttowardsabetterunderstandingofthemechanicsofatleastsome
earthquakes.
Therearemanystudents,postdocsandcolleagueswewishtothankforcollabo-
ratingonresearchprojectsrelatedtothetopicsreviewedinthisbook,orparticipat-
inginstimulatingdiscussionsintheclasswetaughtcalled‘Earthquakehydrology’.
In particular, we wish to thank Emily Brodsky, Yeeping Chia, Douglas Dreger,
Shemin Ge, Fu-qiong Huang, Tom Holzer, Chris Huber, Joel Rowland, Martin
Saar, Yaolin Shi, Chung-Ho Wang, Kelin Wang, Pei-ling Wang and Alex Wong
for enlightening exchanges. Hunter Philson helped with figures and the index. We
v
vi Preface
alsothanktheNationalScienceFoundation,theMillerInstituteforBasicResearch
inScience,andNASAforsupportingtheresearchandsynthesisinthisvolume.
Berkeley,California Chi-YuenWang
MichaelManga
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Liquefaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 ObservationsintheNearField . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 LaboratoryStudies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.1 CyclicLoadingExperiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.2 DissipatedEnergyforLiquefactionbyUndrained
Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 LiquefactionBeyondtheNearField . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.1 Seismic Energy Density as a Metric
forLiquefaction Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.2 MechanismforLiquefactionBeyondtheNearField . . . 18
2.5 ExperimentatWildlifeReserve,California . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 DependenceofLiquefactiononSeismicFrequency. . . . . . . . 24
2.6.1 FieldObservationfromTaiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.6.2 LaboratoryStudies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.6.3 NumericalModels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.7 ConcludingRemarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 MudVolcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 ResponseofMudVolcanoestoEarthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3 InsightsfromTriggeredEruptionsofMagmaticVolcanoes . . . . 35
3.4 Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4.1 StaticorDynamicStresses? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4.2 MechanismsforInitiatingEruptions . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5 EffectofEarthquakesonAlready-EruptingMudVolcanoes . . . 40
3.6 ConcludingRemarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
vii
viii Contents
4 IncreasedStreamDischarge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3 CharacteristicsofIncreasedDischarge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.3.1 RecessionAnalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3.2 EstimateExcessDischarge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.4 ProposedMechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.4.1 CoseismicElasticStrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.4.2 EnhancedPermeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.4.3 CoseimicConsolidationandLiquefaction . . . . . . . . 55
4.5 DebateAboutMechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.5.1 GeochemicalandTemperatureConstraints . . . . . . . . 56
4.5.2 ConstraintsfromMultipleEarthquakes . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.5.3 ConstraintsfromRecessionAnalysis . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.5.4 ConstraintsfromMultipleStreamGauges . . . . . . . . 59
4.5.5 RoleofAnisotropicPermeability . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.6 StreamflowIncreaseinHydrothermalAreas . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.7 ConcludingRemarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5 GroundwaterLevelChange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2 Step-likeChangesintheNearField . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.2.1 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.2.2 CausalMechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.3 SustainedChangesintheIntermediateField . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.3.1 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.3.2 CausalMechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4 GroundwaterOscillationsintheFarField . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.5 Role of S waves and Love Waves on Groundwater
Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.6 Pore-PressureChangesontheSeaFloor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.7 PostseismicGroundwaterRecession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.7.1 RecessionAnalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.7.2 InterpretationofthePostseismicRecession . . . . . . . . 91
5.8 ConcludingRemarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6 TemperatureandCompositionChanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.2 Earthquake-InducedChangeinGroundwaterTemperature . . . . 98
6.2.1 HotSprings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.2.2 Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.2.3 MarineHydrothermalSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2.4 Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Contents ix
6.3 Earthquake-InducedChangesinWaterComposition . . . . . . . 106
6.3.1 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.3.2 Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.4 ConcludingRemarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7 Geysers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.2 ResponseofGeyserstoEarthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.3 ResponseofGeyserstoOtherSourcesofStress . . . . . . . . . 119
7.4 Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.4.1 HowdoGeysersWork? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.4.2 MechanismsforAlteringEruptions . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.5 ConcludingRemarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8 EarthquakesInfluencedbyWater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.2 FluidsandRockFailure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.3 EarthquakesInducedbyFluidInjectionandExtraction . . . . . . 127
8.4 Reservoir-InducedSeismicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.5 NaturalHydrologicalTriggeringofEarthquakes . . . . . . . . . 130
8.6 EarthquakeTriggeringofEarthquakesviaHydrologicalProcesses 131
8.7 ConcludingRemarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9 HydrologicPrecursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.2 WhatisaPrecursor? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.3 IdentifyingHydrologicPrecursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.4.1 China:Haicheng,1975andTangshan,1976 . . . . . . . 146
9.4.2 Kobe,Japan,1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.4.3 Nankaido,Japan,1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.4.4 KettlemanHills,California,1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.4.5 Chi-Chi,Taiwan,1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.4.6 Kamchatka,1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
9.4.7 Pyrenees,France,1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.4.8 ReservoirInducedSeismicity,Koyna,India . . . . . . . . 151
9.4.9 CalistogaGeyser,California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.4.10 PrecursoryChangesinSpringTemperature . . . . . . . . 154
9.5 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
10 Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
10.1 AGeneralFramework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
10.2 DirectionsforFutureResearch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
x Contents
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
AppendixA:Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
AppendixB:BasicEquationsforGroundwaterFlow . . . . . . . . . . 171
B.1 Darcy’slaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
B.2 PorosityandPermeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
B.3 ElementsinaGroundwaterSystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
B.4 DrivingPotential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
B.5 TheContinuumApproach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
B.6 GroundwaterFlowEquations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
B.7 PhysicalMeaningoftheSpecificStorage . . . . . . . . . . 175
B.8 FlowEquationforIsotropicAquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
B.9 Calculating Permeability from Tidal Response
ofGroundwaterLevel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
B.10 EquationDerivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
AppendixC:GroundwaterTransport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
C.1 GoverningEquationsforHeatTransport . . . . . . . . . . 179
C.2 Relative Significance of Advective Versus
ConductiveHeatTransport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
C.3 GoverningEquationsforSoluteTransport . . . . . . . . . . 180
C.4 RelativeSignificanceofAdvectiveVersusDiffusive
SoluteTransport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
AppendixD:HydromechanicalCoupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
D.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
D.2 EffectiveStressPrinciple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
D.3 PoroelasticityandHydrodynamicCoupling . . . . . . . . . 184
D.4 Non-elasticDeformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
D.5 DeformationUnderCyclicLoading . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
AppendixE:DataforHydrologicResponsestoEarthquakes . . . . . . 192
E.1 StreamandSpringResponses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
E.2 GroundwaterLevelResponses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
E.3 HotSpringResponses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
E.4 LiquefactionOccurrenceDuringEarthquakes . . . . . . . . 209
E.5 TriggeredMudVolcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
E.6 TriggeredEarthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Chapter 1
Introduction
For thousands of years, a variety of hydrologic changes has been documented
following earthquakes. Examples include the liquefaction of sediments, increased
stream discharge, changes in groundwater level, changes in the temperature and
chemicalcompositionofgroundwater,formationofnewsprings,disappearanceof
previouslyactivesprings,andchangesintheactivitiesofmudvolcanoesandgey-
sers.Itisnotunexpectedthatearthquakescancausehydrologicchangesbecausethe
stressescreatedbyearthquakescanbelarge.Whatissurprisingarethelargeampli-
tudes of hydrologic responses and the great distances over which these changes
occur. Following the 2004 M9.2 Sumatra earthquake, for example, groundwater
erupted in southern China, 3200 km away from the epicenter, and the water foun-
tain shown in Fig. 1.1 reached a height of 50–60 m above the ground surface
when it was first sighted. Because earthquakes and water interact with each other
throughchangesinbothstressandphysicalpropertiesofrocks,understandingthe
origin of hydrological responses can provide unique insight into hydrogeologic
and tectonic processes at spatial and temporal scales that otherwise could not be
studied.
Earthquakes cause both static and dynamic changes of the stresses in the crust.
Bothtypesofstresschangedecreasewithincreasingdistancefromtheearthquake,
butatdifferentrates.Figure1.2,fromKilbetal.(2002),illustrateshowstaticand
dynamic stress change with increasing distance from the epicenter. The dynamic
component of the Coulomb stress change, (cid:2)CFS(t), as defined in the caption
of Fig. 1.2, is the time-dependent change in the Coulomb failure stress resolved
onto a possible failure plane. The static stress change, denoted by (cid:2)CFS, dimin-
ishes much more rapidly with distance than the transient, dynamic change. Thus
at close distances the ratio (peak (cid:2)CFS(t))/(cid:2)CFS is approximately proportional
to the source-receiver distance, r, and at larger distances proportional to r2 (Aki
andRichards,1980).Atdistancesupto∼1rupturedfaultlength,thestaticandthe
peakdynamicchangesarecomparableinmagnitude,whileatdistancesgreaterthan
several ruptured fault lengths, the peak dynamic change is much greater than the
static change. As discussed in later chapters, the relative magnitude of the static
and dynamic stresses is reflected in the hydrologic responses to earthquakes and
is critical to understanding the origin of hydrological changes. We thus hereafter
use the expression ‘near field’ to denote distances within about one ruptured fault
C.-Y.Wang,M.Manga,EarthquakesandWater,LectureNotesinEarth 1
Sciences114,DOI10.1007/978-3-642-00810-8_1,(cid:3)C Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg2010