Early Nutrition and Lifestyle Factors: Effects on First Trimester Placenta

166 Pages·2016·2.28 MB·English

by  Asim K. Duttaroy, Sanjay Basak (auth.)

Asim K. Duttaroy · Sanjay Basak
Early Nutrition
and Lifestyle
Factors
Eff ects on First Trimester Placenta
Early Nutrition and Lifestyle Factors
ThiSisaFMBlankPage
Asim K. Duttaroy (cid:129) Sanjay Basak
Early Nutrition and Lifestyle
Factors
Effects on First Trimester Placenta
AsimK.Duttaroy SanjayBasak
DepartmentofNutrition NationalInstituteofNutrition
UniversityofOslo IndianCouncilofMedicalResearch
Oslo,Norway Hyderabad,India
ISBN978-3-319-38802-1 ISBN978-3-319-38804-5 (eBook)
DOI10.1007/978-3-319-38804-5
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2016947468
©SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland2016
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Preface
The placenta is literally the “tree of life.” The derivation of the word
placenta comes from Latin for cake (placenta), from Greek for flat, slab-like
(plako´enta/plakou´nta), and from German for mother cake (mutterkuchen), all
referring to the round, flat appearance of the human placenta. Structurally, the
placenta is a hemochorial villous organ. The placenta is the highly specialized
organofpregnancythatsupportsthenormalgrowthanddevelopmentofthefetus.
Growth and function of the placenta are precisely regulated and coordinated
to ensure that the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the maternal
and fetal circulatory systems operates at maximal efficiency. After implantation,
trophoblast cells proliferate and differentiate along two pathways described as
villous and extravillous trophoblast cells. Non-migratory, villous cytotrophoblast
cells fuse to form the multinucleated syncytiotrophoblast, which forms the outer
epitheliallayerofthechorionicvilli.Itisattheterminalbranchesofthechorionic
villi that the majority of fetal/maternal exchange occurs. Extravillous trophoblast
(EVT) cells migrate into the decidua and remodel uterine arteries. This facilitates
bloodflowtotheplacentaviadilated,compliantvessels,unresponsivetomaternal
vasomotor control. However, all these tasks depend on normal vascular develop-
ment within the placenta itself. Placentation begins with the implantation of
the blastocyst; the outermost cells of the blastocyst give rise to the trophoblast,
a specialized epithelium that during implantation invades the decidua and the
inner myometrium, developing the placenta. The cell columns are formed
by a subpopulation of cytotrophoblast cells called extravillous trophoblast
that proliferates, invades the decidua and superficial layer of myometrium, and
transforms the spiral arteries (a terminal branch of the uterine arteries that reach
the endometrial surface). Complete transformation of spiral arteries is required
forasuccessfulpregnancysincethetransformed spiralarteriesbecomelowresis-
tancevesselsallowinganormalbloodflowtothefeto-placentalunit.
Themechanismsunderlyingextravilloustrophoblastproliferationandinvasion
have not been fully established, but it is known that many molecular pathways
are involved: (a) cellular interaction systems, whether cell–cell (cadherins) or
v
vi Preface
cell-extracellular matrix (integrins), (b) proteolysis systems such as urokinase
plasminogen activator (uPA)/plasminogen activator inhibitor type-2 (PAI-2) and
matrix metalloproteinase type 9 (MMP-9)/tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-3
(TIMP-3), and (c) growth factors/vascular growth factors such as insulin growth
factorII(IGF-2)anditsbindingprotein-1(IGFBP-1),vascularendothelialgrowth
factor (VEGF) and its receptors (Flt-1), and transforming growth factor beta
(TGFβ)anditsreceptor(endoglin),amongothers.
Inthisbook,we have collecteddata related toplacentation processesandcells
involved,growthfactorsresponsibleforplacentation,anddietaryandenvironmen-
tal factors that may influence the processes. Ultimately, the book describes the
impactofimproperplacentationprocessonfeto-placentalgrowthandadultdisease
program.Webelievethatthisbookwillbehelpfultoallthosewhoareworkingin
theseareasofreproductiveresearch.
Oslo,Norway AsimK.Duttaroy
Hyderabad,India SanjayBasak
Contents
1 PlacentationasaPredictorofFeto-PlacentalOutcome:
EffectsofEarlyNutrition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 PreeclampsiaandPlacentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 PlacentationandIntrauterineGrowthRestrictionBabies. . . . . . 5
1.4 PlacentalProgrammingofAdultHealthandDisease. . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 EarlyPlacentationProcesses. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 13
2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 AngiogenicFactorsandTheirRegulation. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15
2.3 AngiogenicSignalingPathways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 16
2.3.1 TheMAPKPathways. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. 16
2.3.2 ThePI3K/AktPathways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.3 TheNitricOxide(NO)Pathway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 ExpressionofAngiogenicGenesinPlacentalTrophoblasts
andTheirRegulationbyNutrients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 GlucoseandAminoAcidandTheirRolesinPlacentation. . . . . . . 23
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 RoleofEarlyNutrients:AnOverview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3 GlucoseTransportDuringPlacentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4 RegulationofGlucoseTransportersinFeto-PlacentalUnit. . . . 28
3.5 GlucoseandEarlyTrophoblastDevelopment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.6 AminoAcidTransportandItsRegulationinEarlyPregnancy. . . 31
3.7 ProteinMalnutritionandPlacentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.8 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
vii
viii Contents
4 DietaryFattyAcidsandPlacentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 ModulationofAngiogenesisbyLCFAs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3 FABPsandTheirRolesinAngiogenesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4 FattyAcidMediated-AngiogenesisinHumanFirst-Trimester
PlacentalTrophoblastCells:PossibleMechanisms. . . . . . . . . . 44
4.5 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5 BVitaminsandTheirRoleonTrophoblastGrowthand
Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2 FolicAcidRegulatesPlacentalGrowthActivitiesand
TrophoblastInvasion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3 FolicAcidandDHAonPlacentalGrowthandActivities. . . . . 54
5.4 MaternalFolicAcidasaDeterminantofFetalGrowthand
Outcome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.5 TransportandMetabolismofFolicAcidAcrossthePlacenta. . . 55
5.6 PericonceptionalNutrition,FolicAcidSupplementation,and
PregnancyOutcome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.7 VitaminB NutritionDuringGestation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
12
5.8 VitaminB RestrictionAffectsGrowthandMetabolism
12
oftheNutrients. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. 60
5.9 VitaminB DeficiencyCanBePredictedfromUrinein
12
Pregnancy?. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . 61
5.10 VitaminB SupplementationCorrectsDeficiencyDuring
12
Pregnancy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.11 MultivitaminorOnlyVitaminSupplementationforBetter
PregnancyOutcome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.12 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6 Fat-SolubleandAntioxidantVitaminsandMinerals:
TheirRolesinPlacentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.2 VitaminDandItsRoleinEarlyDevelopment. . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.3 VitaminAandDevelopmentalPathways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.4 VitaminEandPlacentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.5 MaternalVitaminKDeficiencyandAltered
FetusDevelopment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.6 VitaminCandPlacentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.7 ImpactofMineralNutritionandPossibleRole
inPlacentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.8 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Contents ix
7 EndocrineFactorsandTheirEffectsonPlacentation. . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.2 RolesofCytokinesonPlacentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.3 RolesofLeptinandAdiponectinonEarly
PlacentalFormation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.4 RolesofProstaglandinsonEarlyPlacentaDevelopment. . . . . . 96
7.5 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8 MaternalLifestyleFactorsandPlacentation.. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. 101
8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.2 ImpactofMaternalSmokingonthePlacentalTrophoblast
DevelopmentMediatedbyArylHydrocarbonReceptor. . . . . . 102
8.3 EffectofSmokingonthePlacentalTrophoblastDevelopment
byAngiogenicFactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.4 ProtectionofPreeclampsiabySmoking:RoleofAdrenomedullin
andCarbonMonoxidesonTrophoblastInvasion?. . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.5 EffectofCaffeineonPlacentalGrowthandDevelopmentand
Fetus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.6 MaternalAlcoholIntakeonHormone,Angiogenesis
andVascularSystemofthePlacenta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.7 EffectofMaternalAlcoholIntakeonNutrientTransportand
InsulinSignalingofthePlacenta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.8 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
9 RegulationofPlacentationbyEnvironmentalFactors. . . . . . . . . . 119
9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9.2 EffectsofEnvironmentalPollutantsonAngiogenic
andVascularDevelopmentofthePlacenta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
9.3 PlacentaasanEnvironmentalBiomarkerfor
inUteroExposure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9.4 HeavyMetalContaminationsandFeto-PlacentalOutcome. . . . 124
9.5 PhthalateContaminationsandItsEffectsonFeto-Placental
Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
9.6 MaternalMicrobialExposureandItsEffectsonPregnancy
Outcome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.7 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127