Early abuse and neglect as risk factors for the development of criminal and antisocial behavior.

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Early abuse and neglect as risk factors
for the development of criminal and
antisocial behavior.
CHAPTER · JANUARY 2015
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-08720-7_12,
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Patricia K Kerig
University of Utah
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Stephen P. Becker
Cincinnati Children's Hospital Med…
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Retrieved on: 28 September 2015
12
Early Abuse and Neglect as Risk
Factors for the Development
of Criminal and Antisocial Behavior
Patricia K. Kerig and Stephen P. Becker
Introduction Definitions
Awealthofresearchatteststothesignificantrole The term “child abuse,” also called maltreat-
that childhood abuse and neglect play in the ment, encompasses a wide range of experiences
developmentofcriminalandantisocialbehavior andisdefineddifferentlyinvariousculturesand
(CAB). From a developmental psychopathology legal jurisdictions. Thus, it is challenging to fix
perspective,theseadversechildhoodexperiences clearlyinoursitesthetargetofempiricalinquiry
deprivechildrenofthe“averageexpectableenvi- intheresearchconductedonthistopic.However,
ronment” (Cicchetti & Valentino, 2006) that is attempts to derive internationally agreed-upon
needed for adaptive functioning and thus leave definitions have been made, including the
youth vulnerable to the interpersonal, cognitive, following widely accepted guideline from the
emotional, and biological factors that contribute WorldHealthOrganization(2006):
to antisociality. After first describing the many
Childabuseormaltreatmentconstitutesallforms
different forms that such maltreatment might ofphysicaland/oremotionalill-treatment,sexual
take,thischapterreviewstheempiricalevidence abuse,neglect,ornegligenttreatmentorcommer-
regarding the underlying mechanisms linking cial or other exploitation, resulting in actual or
potential harm to the child’s health, survival,
early abuse and neglect to CAB, as well as the
development, or dignity in the context of a rela-
particular issues related to adolescence, gender, tionshipofresponsibility,trustorpower(p.9).
“crossover youth” involved with both the child
Noteworthyinthisdefinition,aswellasthose
welfare and juvenile justice systems, and juve-
in most legal statutes, is that these are kinds of
nilepsychopathy.
harmthatareperpetratedbyadultsinpositionsof
careoverchildren,suchasparents,teachers,and
religious figures, rather than hurtful experiences
thatchildrenmightundergoatthehandsofpeers.
P.K.Kerig(*)
DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofUtah,380South Types of Abuse
1530East,SaltLakeCity,UT84112,USA
e-mail:[email protected]
Among the specific types of maltreatment that
S.P.Becker havebeendistinguishedintheresearchoncrimi-
DivisionofBehavioralMedicineandClinical
nal and antisocial behavior (CAB) are physical
Psychology,CincinnatiChildren’sHospitalMedical
abuse (e.g., beating, kicking, burning); sexual
Center,Cincinnati,OH45229,USA
e-mail:[email protected] abuse (e.g., fondling, intercourse, exposure to
J.MorizotandL.Kazemian(eds.),TheDevelopmentofCriminalandAntisocialBehavior, 181
DOI10.1007/978-3-319-08720-7_12,#SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland2015
182 P.K.KerigandS.P.Becker
pornography);psychologicaloremotionalabuse include frequency and duration (e.g., whether
(e.g., rejecting, demeaning, terrorizing); neglect thechildenduresasingleepisodeversuschronic
(e.g., failing to provide adequate food, shelter, and repeated maltreatment), as well as violence
medical care); exposure to domestic violence, orthreatsofviolenceandseverity(e.g.,whether
which is found to negatively affect children physical abuse results in a bruise versus a need
even when they themselves are not the direct for hospitalization; whether sexual abuse
victimsofviolenceinthehome;andexploitation involves visual exposure to an adult’s genitals
(e.g.,burdeningachildwithdemandsbeyondhis versus penetration). In addition, the develop-
orherdevelopmentalcapacities,suchasinchild mental period in which children undergo mal-
labor, child soldiering, indentured servitude) treatmentmaymoderateitseffectsonchildren’s
(Barnett, Manly, & Cicchetti, 1993; Graham- functioning, as may the relationship with the
Bermann&Edleson,2001;WorldHealthOrgan- abuser. For example, children who experience
ization, 2006). Some forms of abuse cross maltreatment at the hands of an adult on whom
categories in ways that may obscure them from they rely for trust and care, termed betrayal
view; for example, youth who are engaged in trauma,demonstratethemostnegativeoutcomes
prostitution may be perceived by social welfare (Freyd, 1996; Martin, Cromer, DePrince, &
andjuvenilejusticesystemsasbeingperpetrators Freyd,2013).
ofcrimeratherthan,moreaccurately,asvictims
of commercial sexual exploitation and abuse
(Mitchell,Finkelhor,&Wolak,2010). Theoretical Rationales for Linking
Although some research has demonstrated Early Abuse and Neglect
that these specific forms of abuse have distinct to the Development of Criminal
associations with child outcomes, including and Antisocial Behavior
CAB,italsoisthecasethatthevarioustypesof
maltreatment often co-occur, a phenomenon The Developmental Psychopathology
termed polyvictimization (Finkelhor, Shattuck, Perspective
Turner,Ormrod,&Hamby,2011).Forexample,
Finkelhor, Turner, Ormrod, and Hamby (2009) Fromadevelopmentalpsychopathologyperspec-
conducted a telephone survey with a nationally tive, abuse and neglect are viewed as violations
representativesampleofover4500USyouthand oftheaverageexpectableenvironment(Cicchetti
found that almost two-thirds had experienced & Valentino, 2006) that is needed to support a
morethanoneformofabuse,andalmostathird child’shealthybiological,emotional,social,and
of those had experienced five or more types of cognitive development. In particular, the “safe
victimization. A recent replication conducted in base” provided by a secure attachment relation-
Canada (Cyr et al., 2013) found similar results, shipisseenasfundamentaltothechild’sability
with over half of children reporting between 1 to acquire a number of fundamental develop-
and3formsofvictimization. mental capacities that, in interaction with one
another, protect against the development of
criminal and antisocial behavior. These include,
Dimensions of Abuse amongothers,capacitiesforbasictrust,egoresil-
ience,self-control,emotionregulation,empathy,
As the examples of each type of abuse listed perspective-taking, social understanding, inter-
above suggest, children’s experiences of each personal problem-solving, mastery motivation,
form of maltreatment may vary widely along a executive functions, and moral judgment, all of
numberofdimensionsthatdeterminehowdeeply which are compromised by abuse and neglect
and pervasively they affect children’s develop- (Cicchetti& Toth, 2005;Cicchetti &Valentino,
ment (Kerig, Ludlow, & Wenar, 2012; Trickett 2006; Kerig, Ludlow & Wenar, 2012). Children
& McBride-Chang, 1995). These dimensions whoenjoyasecureattachmenttoacaregiveralso
12 EarlyAbuseandNeglectasRiskFactorsfortheDevelopmentofCriminaland... 183
are less likely to engage in coercive exchanges Ludlow & Wenar, 2012). For example, in
with their caregivers or to provoke the infancy,theeffectsofmaltreatmenthaveimpor-
caregivers’ use of the kind of power assertive tant implications for increasing insecurity and
techniques that are predictive of antisocial disorganization in attachment relationships with
behavior in the transition from infancy to caregivers,whereasintoddlerhoodtheeffectsof
school age (Kochanska & Kim, 2013). In this maltreatment are seen particularly in deviations
way, the transactional perspective inherent to in the development of the self-system and
the developmental psychopathology framework capacities for autonomy. In the school-age
attunesustocomplexwaysinwhichriskfactors years, maltreated children demonstrate
interact, such as when maltreated children’s difficulties in accomplishing the stage-salient
dysregulated behavior provokes further ill- tasks of forming positive peer relationships and
treatment at the hands of impatient and irritated achieving mastery in school and extracurricular
parents. Or, to take another example, youth activities. In turn, adolescents with a history of
whose affect regulation skills have been early abuse are more vulnerable to becoming
disrupted by physical abuse or whose social pulled into a variety of high-risk behaviors,
skills have been blunted by neglect may be per- includingengaginginsubstanceabuseandenter-
ceived negatively and rejected by peers (Kim & ing precociously into sexually intimate
Cicchetti, 2010). Such peer rejection may, in relationships with antisocial and abusive dating
turn,provokeyouths’withdrawalfromprosocial partners.AsEgelandandcolleagues(2002)sum-
environments such as school (Ladd, Herald- marize:“Maladaptationrepresentsadeflectionin
Brown, & Reiser, 2008) and interfere with the normal development that may initiate a deviant
development of the academic and interpersonal pathway toward a variety of problems. Thus the
skillsthatcouldprovidealternativestoantisocial effectsofmaltreatmentonstage-salientdevelop-
behavior as a source of adolescent self- mental issues and the notion of developmental
expression (Fergusson, Swain-Campbell, & pathways may help to explain the link between
Horwood,2002).Moreover,inviewingtheindi- early maltreatment and psychopathology”
vidual holistically as an integrated system, the (p.250).
developmentalpsychopathologyperspectivealso
highlights the importance of considering
biological factors that are affected by maltreat- Social Learning Theory
ment and contribute to the development of
CAB—including genetic, neuropsychological, Amongthesociallearningprinciplesproposedto
psychophysiological, neurochemical, and epige- explainthelinkbetweenchildhoodmaltreatment
netic variables—again, as these interact with and delinquency are differential reinforcement
environmental, social, and intrapersonal and modeling (Akers, 2009). Children who are
variables. We will return to discussion of these victimsorobserversofviolenceinthehomemay
biologicalfactorslaterinthischapter. modeltheirparents’behavior,particularlywhen
theyperceivethatsuchviolenceisaccompanied
Stage-Salient Issues Another tenet of the byrewardssuchasacquiescencetoone’swishes
developmental psychopathology perspective is and interpersonal dominance over others. The
thattheimpactofadverseexperiencesdiffersas fact that fathers are disproportionately the
a function of the developmental tasks or stage- perpetrators of family violence might inspire
salient issues that the child is navigating at that boys to differentially imitate the models they
point in the life span and which are thus most present (Kerig, 1999), thus contributing to an
susceptible to disruption (Cicchetti, 2006; increased vulnerability to delinquency amongst
Erickson, Korfmacher, & Egeland, 1992; Kerig, maltreatedboys.
184 P.K.KerigandS.P.Becker
Haynie, Petts, Maimon, and Piquero (2009),
Control Theory
“exposure to violence is likely to reduce social
bonds,constraintheaccumulationofhumanand
Control theory proposes that self-control over
social capital, and expose adolescents to scripts
natural human urges, including the use of force
of behavior that facilitate future involvement in
or immoral means to meet self-serving ends, is
problematic behavior” (Haynie et al., 2009, p.
achieved through the fostering of bonds with
283).Supportforthistheoryhasbeenofferedin
others—initially with parents and then
anumberofinvestigationsshowingthatnegative
generalizedtothewidersociety(Hirschi,1969).
affect is both a common consequence of trauma
Maltreatment may serve to disrupt those early
andapredictorofdelinquency(Aseltine,Gore&
bondsandinterferewiththekindofempathically
Gordon, 2000; Brezina, 1998; Haynie et al.,
attuned attachment that has been empirically
2009;Maschi,2006;Maschietal.,2008).
demonstrated to increase children’s internaliza-
GSTalsohasbeenusedtoexplainthefactthat
tionofparentalvaluesandintrinsicmotivationto
there are gender differences in the prevalence
behaveprosocially(Kochanska&Aksan,2007).
rates of delinquency (Broidy & Agnew, 1997).
The theory posits that, whereas the negative
effectofangerisseenasthedrivingforcebehind
General Strain Theory antisocial behavior (Agnew, 1992), for girls
anger “is likely to be accompanied by feelings
General strain theory (GST) (Agnew, 1985) has of guilt, depression, and anxiety ... [which]
been widely utilized as a theoretical basis for reduce the likelihood of other-directed crime”
understanding the mechanisms linking maltreat- (Agnew,2001,p.322).
ment and delinquency. GST posits that being
born into an aversive environment, one colored
by“relationshipsinwhichothersarenottreating Developmental Traumatology
the individual as he or she would like to be
treated”(Agnew,1997,p.103),actsasasignifi- Althoughinmanyrespectsintegratedwithin the
cant source of strain for young people, one to larger umbrella of developmental psychopathol-
which they may have few skills to successfully ogy, trauma-specific theories have been posited
adapt.Suchexperiencesgeneratestrongnegative that target the ways in which posttraumatic
effect, particularly among adolescents who are reactionsfollowingexperiencessuchasmaltreat-
more likely than younger children to respond to ment might interfere with normative develop-
adversities with anger, frustration, and problem ment in ways that lead to antisocial behavior
behavior (Agnew, 1997). Negative emotion, in specifically as opposed to psychopathology
turn, “increases the individual’s level of felt more generally (Ford & Blaustein, 2013; Ford,
injury, creates a desire for retaliation/revenge, Chapman, Mack, & Pearson, 2006; Kerig &
energizes the individual to action, and lowers Becker, 2010). Posttraumatic reactions—includ-
inhibitions” against engaging in misbehavior or ing hypervigilance to cues associated with
even violence(Agnew,1992, p.60).Delinquent threat, traumatic re-experiencing, and attempts
behaviormayariseasafunctionofadolescents’ to avoid reminders of traumatic experiences,
maladaptive attempts to cope with, or even to particularly through the numbing of emotional
escape from, maltreating environments. More- responses—have all been implicated in the
over, these disruptive behaviors generate addi- dysregulation of affect and behavior that contri-
tional strain through their negative effects on butetocriminalandantisocialbehavior(Bennett,
parent–child and peer relationships, decreased Kerig,Chaplo,McGee,&Baucom,2014;Kerig,
educational and occupational opportunities, and Vanderzee,Becker,&Ward,2013;Kerig,Ward,
the increasingly likelihood of engaging in prob- Vanderzee, & Arnzen Moeddel, 2009). Of par-
lem behaviors into adulthood. As described by ticular interest are symptoms that are only
12 EarlyAbuseandNeglectasRiskFactorsfortheDevelopmentofCriminaland... 185
recently recognizedinthediagnosisofposttrau- allow us to differentiate child outcomes specifi-
matic stress disorder (PTSD), although in fact callyassociatedwithparentalabuseorneglect.
inspired by observations of delinquent youth
(Pynoos et al., 2009), which are characterized
by ways in which traumatized young people
Evidence from Longitudinal Studies
might throw themselves heedlessly into risky,
dangerous, or self-destructive activities such as
Alargebodyofcross-sectionalresearchprovides
through engagement in violent, norm-violating,
evidence that abuse and neglect are correlated
or antisocial behavior. Whether such behaviors
with delinquency and that rates of childhood
emergeasafunctionofaposttraumaticdefiance
abuse and neglect are disproportionately high
against the acknowledgement of vulnerability
among youth who are involved in the juvenile
(Fordetal.,2006)ordysfunctionsinthecapacity
justicesystem(forreviews,seeKerig&Becker,
to recognize risk amongst those who have been
2010,2012).However,morepersuasivearepro-
victimized (Orcutt, Erickson, & Wolfe, 2002)
spective longitudinal studies that can establish
willbeanimportantquestionforfutureresearch.
that child abuse is a precursor and risk factor
that increases the likelihood of CAB over the
course of development. The most recent meta-
Empirical Evidence Linking Early analysis on this topic identified 18 studies, 9 of
Abuse and Neglect which were prospective and longitudinal
to the Development of Criminal (Wilson, Stover, & Berkowitz, 2009). The stud-
and Antisocial Behavior ies reviewed assessed a wide range of
experiencesassociatedwithexposuretoviolence
Before proceeding with our review, it must be prior to age 12, including but not restricted to
acknowledged that the literature linking mal- abuse and neglect. The results of the meta-
treatment to antisocial behavior is vast, with analysis indicated overall large effect sizes
mostlarge-scalelongitudinalstudiesofdevelop- amongst those studies assessing violence expo-
mental psychopathology including measures of sure and antisocial behavior concurrently but
related constructs of interest, including only small effect sizes amongst those involving
externalizing, aggression, conduct disorder, and prospective longitudinal research. However,
problem behavior. In addition, major studies of closer inspection of the results indicates that,
thelong-termsequelaeofchildabuseintoadult- for studies examining direct victimization via
hood measure other negative behaviors that physical or sexual abuse, the effect sizes were
mightbeprecursorstoorco-occurwithcriminal moderate rather than small, and were obscured
behavior, such asanger, substanceuse, and inti- by the inclusion ofwitnessing and victimization
mate partner violence(Andaet al., 2006). Thus, in the same category. For example, among the
tokeeptoamanageablescale,thecurrentreview methodologicallyrigorousstudiescitedisthatof
is selective to key studies that are illustrative or Stouthamer-Loeber, Loeber, Wei, Farrington,
that have had an important impact on the field and Wikstro¨m (2002) which followed 503 boys
andfavorsthosethatincludemeasuresofcrimi- with substantiated maltreatment over the course
nal behavior per se such as involvement in the of 7 years and found that almost 50 % were
juvenile justice (JJ) or adult criminal systems, involved in serious persistent delinquency by
rather than self- or caregiver reports of adoles- age 13, in contrast to 19 % of the matched
cent misbehavior. In addition, there are large controls. It is also notable that the majority of
literatures related to the developmental studiesincludedinWilsonandcolleagues’meta-
consequencesofchildren’sexposuretoviolence analysisassessed“delinquent”behaviorviaself-
ortraumaasbroadlyconceived;however,inthe report than actual criminality or juvenile justice
present review, we focus on those studies that involvement.
186 P.K.KerigandS.P.Becker
Moreover, a number of notable studies were childhood victimization (Coleman, Kim,
not included in Wilson and colleagues’ meta- Mitchell-Herzfeld, & Shady, 2009). At a
analysis and others have been published since it follow-up when the young women were age 28,
was conducted. Among these, Ryan and Testa theinvestigatorsfoundthatthecombinedexperi-
(2005) examined official records collected on ence of physical and sexual abuse was a signifi-
18,676 children in the state of Illinois with cant predictor of recidivism, particularly in
substantiated reports of maltreatment who were combinationwithotherriskfactorssuchasfam-
followed from birth to age 18. Findings showed ilydysfunctionandout-of-homeplacement.
that abused childrenaveraged 47 %higherrates An especially important program of research
of delinquency in adolescence than did their has been conducted by Widom (2003) and her
nonabused peers. In turn, Lansford et al. (2007) colleagues, who have conducted a series of pro-
followed 465 children from kindergarten to spective studies using data collected from large
adulthood and found that those with parent- cohorts of children with documented cases of
reported abuse at an early age were more likely neglect or physical or sexual abuse prior to age
than their peers to be arrested in adolescence as 11, compared with matched control groups. In
well as to perpetrate violence in romantic follow-ups conducted when participants were
relationships. Similarly, Mersky and Reynolds approximately 33 years old, initial findings
(2007) examined official records gathered on showed that those abused or neglected as chil-
1,404 youth tracked from ages 5 to 24 and dren had 55 % higher rates of arrest for nonvio-
found that maltreated youth had significantly lent crimes than did those in the control group
higherratesofviolent,butnotnonviolent,delin- whereas the risk of violent crime was increased
quency. By a similar token, data from the Add 96 %; moreover, the maltreated children began
Health Study following a large group of over theircriminalcareersonaverageayearyounger
11,000 school-age children over 6 years thantheirpeersandweremorelikelytobecome
indicated that each unit increase in family or chronic offenders (Maxfield & Widom, 1996).
caregiver physical abuse raised the probability Subsequent analyses based on a sample of
of contact with the criminal justice system by 1,190 participants found that, after controlling
15 % (Haynie et al., 2009). Further, using data for other risk factors, including parental sub-
from a birth cohort of close to 1,000 children stanceabuse,criminality,poverty,andethnicity,
followed from birth to age 25 in New Zealand, it was only the abused and neglected girls, not
Fergusson,McLeod,andHorwood(2013)found boys, who were at higher risk for engaging in
thatexposuretoself-reportedsexualandphysical violentoffensesandabusingsubstances(Widom
abuse in childhood was associated with a wide &White,1997).Afurtherreplicationandexten-
variety of negative outcomes, including conduct sion of this research based on a different geo-
disorderandantisocialpersonality. graphical region found that those who were
In addition, studies focused on all-female abusedorneglectedinchildhoodwere4.8times
samples have shown that childhood physical more likely to be arrested as juveniles, 2 times
andsexualabuseareassociatedwithanincreased more likely to be arrested in adulthood, and 11
severityofdelinquencyoverthecourseof7years times more likely to commit a violent crime, in
(Cernkovich, Lanctoˆt, & Giordano, 2008) and comparisontothosenotmaltreatedinchildhood
that sexual abuse predicts girls’ higher risk for (English, Widom, & Brandford, 2002). Further
laterdelinquencyoverthecourseofsix(Trickett analyses also revealed gender differences in
& Gordis, 2004) and even 23 years (Trickett, these effects. After controlling for other risk
Noll, & Putnam, 2011) in comparison to their factorssuchassocioeconomicstatusandparental
non-abused peers. Another study examined criminality, child maltreatment was found to be
trajectoriesofoffendingamongasampleof499 associated with adult criminal violence via dif-
girls who had been incarcerated in adolescence ferent pathways for men and women (Widom,
andwhosecasefilesprovidedinformationabout Schuck, & White, 2006). Whereas childhood
12 EarlyAbuseandNeglectasRiskFactorsfortheDevelopmentofCriminaland... 187
maltreatment had direct associations with adult case of girls specifically, Feiring, Miller-
violent offending for men, for women this rela- Johnson, and Cleland (2007) found that, among
tionship was mediated by problematic alcohol sexuallyabusedgirlsfollowedoverthecourseof
use.Thisisanimportantissueforfutureresearch 7 years, abuse-related stigma, including shame
toexamine,andbringsustotheimportantques- and self-blame, was associated with delinquent
tion of the intervening mechanisms that might behavior through the mediators of anger and
account for the link between maltreatment and involvementwithantisocialpeers.
delinquency. Further,runningawayfromhome,whichmay
represent a youth’s way to cope with or escape
from parental abuse, in and of itself appears to
Intervening Mechanisms increase the risk of delinquency by thrusting
youth into the company of antisocial peers and
In addition to Widom and colleagues, other increasing the likelihood that they will resort to
researchers also have attempted to identify the “survivalcrimes”suchastheft,prostitution,and
intervening mechanisms that might explain the drug dealing in order to subsist on the streets
link between childhood maltreatment and later (Chesney-Lind & Pasko, 2004; Kaufman &
delinquency. For example, in studies following Widom,1999;Kerig&Becker,2012).Empirical
maltreatedchildrenfrominfancythroughadoles- research supports the hypothesis that running
cence, Egeland, Yates, Appleyard, and van awaymediatestheassociationbetweenmaltreat-
Dulmen (2002) demonstrated that physical ment and delinquency (Tyler, Johnson, &
abuse,butnotneglect,wasassociatedwithalien- Brownridge, 2008). For example, data from the
ation in preschool, which then predicted AddHealthstudyshowthatabuseinthehomeis
externalizing problems in elementary school, associatedwithagreaterriskofprecociousexits
which ultimately predicted antisocial behavior from normative adolescent roles, including run-
in adolescence. In turn, using national survey ningaway(Haynieetal.,2009).Moreover,Kim,
data that assessed more than 2,000 boys over a Tajima,Herrenkohl,andHuang(2009)followed
period of 1.5 years, Brezina (1998) found that 416 youth from preschool to adolescence and
reduced commitment to school, increased found that parent and youth reports of physical
deviancy-approving attitudes, and increased and psychological abuse were predictive of
anger mediated the significant association youth’s running away and that running away
between self-reported maltreatment and self- was predictive of later delinquency, as well as
reported delinquent behaviors. In turn, the qual- furtherrevictimization.
ityofrelationshipswithbothparentsandfriends In keeping with the multifaceted develop-
was implicated in Salzinger, Rosario, and mental psychopathology framework, Burnette,
Feldman’s (2007) 6-year follow-up of a sample Oshri,Lax,Richards,andRagbeer(2012)exam-
of100childrenwithsubstantiatedphysicalabuse ined the intersections of temperament, emotion
compared to matched controls. Their results dysregulation,andpeerrelationsasmediatorsof
indicated that lack of positive attachments to the association between harsh parenting (verbal
parentsandongoingparentalverbalandphysical andphysicalaggression)andantisocialbehavior
abuse during adolescence mediated the associa- .The1,639youthwereagedbetween9and12at
tionbetweenchildhoodmaltreatmentandadoles- the outset of the study and were followed over
cent self-reported violent delinquency. In the course of three waves, each 2.5 years apart.
contrast,friendship qualityacted asamoderator Results showed that the combination of harsh
such that for abused—but not non-abused— parenting, a disinhibited temperament (low
youth, lower levels of delinquency among behavioral control and high sensation seeking),
friendssignificantlydecreasedtheriskofviolent emotion dysregulation, and association with
delinquencywhilephysicalandviolentabuseby deviant peers predicted youths’ involvement in
best friends exacerbated the risk. Turning to the antisocialbehavior.
188 P.K.KerigandS.P.Becker
Posttraumatic Reactions As noted previously, monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) moderated the
theoriesderivedfromadevelopmentaltraumato- effects of maltreatment on boys’ CAB.
logy perspective propose that posttraumatic Maltreatedboyswithagenotypeconferringlow
reactions play a role in the association between levelsofMAOAexpressionwere2.8timesmore
early maltreatment and later delinquency. likely to develop conduct disorder in childhood
Research to date has confirmed that youth who and 9.8 times more likely to be convicted of a
have experienced interpersonal traumas (Kerig violentcrimeinadulthoodthanweretheirpeers;
et al., 2009, 2013) and polyvictimization (Ford, in contrast, among males with the high MAOA
Elhai, Connor, & Frueh, 2010) are at increased activity genotype, maltreatment was not
riskfordelinquency,andthatsymptomsofPTSD associated with an increase in the likelihood of
help to account for this association, particularly developing conduct disorder or committing a
symptoms associated with emotional numbing violent offense. Similarly, data utilizing retro-
(i.e., difficulty identifying or experiencing one’s spective reports from adults have shown that
feelings) and dysphoric arousal (i.e., irritability, low-activity MAOA alleles predispose indivi-
poor sleep, difficulty concentrating) (Bennett dualstodevelopsymptomsofantisocialperson-
et al., 2014). However, for the purposes of the ality disorder in the context of childhood
currentreview,majorlimitationsofthisresearch maltreatment, whereas high-activity MAOA
todateincludethelackofspecificitytoparental alleles are associated with symptoms of major
maltreatment per se and reliance on a cross- depression(Beachetal.,2013).
sectionalresearchdesignsuchthatthenecessary Following up these results, Cicchetti et al.
temporal associations are not established (2012) investigated gene (cid:1) environment
that would demonstrate PTSD to be causal in interactions in a sample of 627 children with
the maltreatment—posttraumatic reactions— confirmed histories of parental abuse by
delinquencychain. collectingassaysofthreecandidategenesprevi-
ously implicated in antisocial behavior and/or
BiologicalProcessesasMediatorsoftheAsso- maltreatment: TPHI1, which is involved in the
ciation Between Abuse and CAB A growing synthesis of serotonin; 5-HTTLPR, which also
body of research suggests that maltreatment- regulates the availability of serotonin in the
related trauma may have effects on biological brain; and MAOA. The results highlight the
systemsthatareinvolvedinrespondingtostress, importance of gene (cid:1) environment interactions
regulating behavior, and managing emotions in inthatthegeneticpolymorphismswererelatedto
ways that directly increase the risk of CAB an increased risk of antisocial behavior only
(Cicchetti, Rogosch, & Thibodeau, 2012; amongchildrenwhoweremaltreated.Thedevel-
Davies, Sturge-Apple, & Cicchetti, 2011; Ford, opmental timing of maltreatment also emerged
2009; Mead, Beauchaine, & Shannon, 2010). as important and interacted with 5-HTTLPR to
Markers of these effects may be seen at the predict the most negative outcomes, as did the
level of genes, neuroendocrine functioning, typeofmaltreatment:amongchildrenwhowere
neurotransmitters, and neuropsychological homozygous for the short–short allele genotype
deficits.However,conceptualizationsoftherole of 5-HTTLPR, those who experienced sexual
of biology in behavior increasingly utilize com- and/orphysicalabusewereatsignificantlyhigher
plex interactional models that take into account risk for antisocial behavior than those who had
not just genes, for example, but candidate gene experiencedemotionalmaltreatmentorneglect.
(cid:1) environment interactions (see Beaver, However, other research has indicated that,
Schwartz,&Gajos,2015). above and beyond the genetic transmission of
A landmark study based on the Dunedin lon- antisociality—which accounts for as much as
gitudinalsample(Caspietal.,2002)showedthat 50 % of the association between parental
afunctionalpolymorphisminthegeneencoding physical abuse and children’s antisocial behav-
the neurotransmitter-metabolizing enzyme ior—maltreatment predicts an increased risk for
12 EarlyAbuseandNeglectasRiskFactorsfortheDevelopmentofCriminaland... 189
CAB over and above the influence of genes. To increasedriskofviolentoffendingamongstchil-
demonstrate this, Jaffee, Caspi, Moffitt, and dren who suffered physical abuse (Widom,
Taylor(2004)collecteddataon1,116twinpairs 2003), whereas other studies suggest that the
followed from ages 5 to 7. Results showed that effects of physical abuse and neglect are equi-
physical maltreatment predicted an increased valent(Mersky&Reynolds,2007).
riskofchildantisocialbehavior,asmeasuredby One more finely discriminating comparative
maternal and teacher report, in a clear temporal study was conducted by Cohen, Smailes, and
and dose-response association, and the effects Brown(2004),utilizingofficialChildProtection
were independent of genetic factors. Although Agencyandarrestrecordsforanationalcohortof
there was evidence for a passive gene- individuals born between 1965 and 1974 and
environment correlation, in that antisocial followedup25yearslater.Theirresultsshowed
parents were those most likely to maltreat their thatthehighestratesofadultarrestwereamong
childrenandthechildrenoftheseparentshadthe those with substantiated childhood physical
highestratesofantisocialbehavior,theeffectsof abuse and the lowest rates amongst those who
maltreatment remained consistent when these had been victims of neglect, whereas violent
factorswerecontrolled. crimes against persons were most prevalent
One of the biological underpinnings to this amongst those who had been sexually abused in
research that is ripe for future exploration is childhood. A similar pattern emerged from
that of epigenetics (Beach et al., 2013; Mehta Herrera and McCloskey’s (2003) follow-up of a
et al., 2013). Newer biological models are sample of girls over 6 years, in which child
evidencing that genes are not something that sexual abuse was found to be the strongest pre-
children “have” but rather that genes can be dictor of both violent and nonviolent offending,
modified—turned on and off—by experiences. whereasphysicallyabusedgirlswerethosemost
Thus, the picture may be a more complicated likely to assault their parents. In contrast,
one in which maltreating parents set the stage witnessingdomesticviolencewasnotpredictive
for children’s vulnerability to developing CAB of delinquency once the effects of physical and
intheaftermathofabusebyrearingtheminways sexualabuse were accountedfor.Most recently,
that increase the expression of genes associated data from a study of 195 children of Navy
withcriminalandantisocialbehavior. families referred for allegations of maltreatment
wereanalyzedtocreatethreedistinctlatentclas-
ses(Grassoetal.,2013).Thosechildrenwhohad
Distinguishing Among Types experienced sexual abuse in combination with
of Maltreatment physical abuse and exposure to interparental vio-
lence committed three times the number of self-
With notable exceptions, relatively few of the reported delinquent behaviors than children who
studies we have identified compare the associ- hadexperiencedphysicalabuseand/orinterparental
ations between CAB and diverse forms of mal- violenceintheabsenceofsexualabuse.
treatment(e.g.,physicalversusemotionalversus Different forms of abuse also may have dif-
sexualabuse,exposuretoviolenceversusexploi- ferent effects depending on youth gender.
tationorneglect),sometimesbecausethetopicof Forexample,Tyleretal.(2008)followedasam-
investigationislimitedtoonlyoneformofmal- ple of 360 high-risk youth over a period of 6
treatment, such as sexual abuse (e.g., Feiring years and found that adolescent self-reports of
et al., 2007; Trickett & Gordis, 2004), or at seriousdelinquencywerepredictedbychildhood
other times because various types of abuse are neglect forboysandbyphysicalabuse forgirls.
collapsed into larger categories (e.g., Cicchetti The reasons for this gender difference are not
et al., 2012). Still other research has differen- immediately obvious, but this is a pattern that
tiated only between physical abuse and neglect, warrants further investigation and is in need of
with findings sometimes supporting a slightly replication.