11/1/2019 ABC-CLIO eBooks ABCCLIO eBook Collection x close Print this page and the next pages. PRINT (select citation style below) You may print a maximum of 50 pages at one time. Dystopian Literature: A Theory and Research Guide By: Booker INTRODUCTION: THE TURN TO DYSTOPIA IN MODERN LITERATURE The unnamed title character of GabrielGarcíaMárquezThe Autumn of the Patriarch is a composite figure not only of Latin American despots, but of dictators the world over from Julius Caesar onward. Indeed, this text is one of the most searching explorations of the ideology of despotism in modern literature. Among other things, García Márquez plays off the patriarch against the Latin American poet Ruben Dario, suggesting that poetry and totalitarianism are natural enemiesand even suggesting that poetry might potentially be the more powerful of the two. The Patriarch himself is both fascinated and frightened by the power of Dario’s poetry, wondering in his own inimitable fashion "how is it possible for this Indian to write something so beautiful with the same hand that he wipes his ass with" (181). García Márquez’s text has special significance within the context of Latin American culture, where both dictators and poets have traditionally had unusual amounts of power, at least by North American standards. But García Márquez’s suggestion that poetry and despotism are polar opposites defines a fundamental dichotomy that informs Western aesthetic thought in general. In a speech given at Amherst College only a week before his assassination, PresidentJohn Kennedy delivered a typical description of this opposition: When power leads man toward arrogance, poetry reminds him of his limitations. When power narrows the areas of man’s concern, poetry reminds him of the richness and diversity of his existence. When power corrupts, poetry cleanses, for art establishes the basic human truths which must serve as the touchstone for our judgment. Kennedy’s speech is a classic piece of liberal rhetoric, of course, and it is worth keeping in mind Marxistoriented arguments that the links typically drawn in the liberal tradition between art and freedom may participate in a subtle strategy whereby bourgeois society creates the illusion of individual freedom in order to assure that individuals will in fact behave themselves properly within the dictates of a capitalist economy. As Terry Eagleton repeatedly reminds us in his recent historical survey of aesthetic theory, the very notion of the aesthetic as we know it arose in conjunction with the rise of bourgeois society. In particular, many of our conceptions of the nature of the work of art (especially those having to do with organic unity) arise in close complicity with the rise of the autonomous bourgeois individual as the principal paradigm of human subjectivity. Eagleton suggests that the work of art functions as an object of imaginary identification through which the bourgeois subject develops a fantasy of its own wholeness and autonomy, in a process much like the Lacanian mirror stage (Ideology87). However, this process is not an entirely simple one. In his discussion of Kant, for example, Eagleton notes the double movement of the beautiful and the sublime in Kantian aesthetics. The beautiful, he suggests, supports this imaginary identification, shoring up the subject and giving it the confidence it needs to compete in a free market, while the sublime performs a humbling function, reminding the subject that, free or not, there are in fact limits that are not to be crossed. This double movement is, for Eagleton, essential to the ideology of bourgeois society: "For one problem of all humanist ideology is how its centring and consoling of the subject is to be made compatible with a certain essential reverence and submissiveness on the subject’s part" (90). http://legacy.abc-clio.com/print.aspx?isbn=9780313032868&id=0313291152-1 1/25 11/1/2019 ABC-CLIO eBooks Indeed, much of the point of Eagleton’s survey is to suggest that, despite the fact that the aesthetic is a thoroughly bourgeois concept whose very purpose is the perpetuation of bourgeois ideology, there is something inherently uncontrollable in the aesthetic which still gives it a considerable subversive potential: "The aesthetic as custom, sentiment, spontaneous impulse may consort well enough with political domination; but these phenomena border embarrassingly on passion, imagination, sensuality, which are not always so easily incorporable" (28). And if Eagleton himself here sounds more like a liberal than a Marxist, it is worth keeping in mind the important role that art has played in the thought of so many modern Marxist thinkers, including Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Louis Althusser, and Fredric Jamesonin addition to Eagleton himself. For such thinkers, literature quite often plays a critical role, opposing its imaginative visions to existing or potential ills and injustices in society. On the other hand, imaginative literature is one of the most important means by which any culture can investigate new ways of defining itself and of exploring alternatives to the social and political status quo. Utopian literature, with its quest for the ideal society, represents the epitome of this project, and thinkers like Jameson have particularly stressed the importance of utopian impulses in literature. In the same way, literary works that critically examine both existing conditions and the potential abuses that might result from the institution of supposedly utopian alternatives can be seen as the epitome of literature in its role as social criticism. For the purposes of the current volume, it is precisely such literature that is encompassed by the term "dystopian." Briefly, dystopian literature is specifically that literature which situates itself in direct opposition to utopian thought, warning against the potential negative consequences of arrant utopianism. At the same time, dystopian literature generally also constitutes a critique of existing social conditions or political systems, either through the critical examination of the utopian premises upon which those conditions and systems are based or through the imaginative extension of those conditions and systems into different contexts that more clearly reveal their flaws and contradictions. By this definition, dystopian literature is not so much a specific genre as a particular kind of oppositional and critical energy or spirit. Indeed, any number of literary works (especially modern ones) can be seen to contain dystopian energies, and readings that emphasize these energies can reveal dystopian impulses in works that might not otherwise be considered clear examples of dystopian literature. Virtually any literary work that contains an element of social or political criticism offers the possibility of such readings. Even ostensibly realistic critiques of existing social conditions (like Joyce Dubliners or like the works of earlytwentiethcentury American naturalists) thus have a certain dystopian potential. For purposes of this study, however, I consider dystopian literature to include those works that rely on a dialogue with utopian idealism as an important element of their social criticism. Further, I consider the principal literary strategy of dystopian literature to be defamiliarization: by focusing their critiques of society on imaginatively distant settings, dystopian fictions provide fresh perspectives on problematic social and political practices that might otherwise be taken for granted or considered natural and inevitable. This exploration of alternative perspectives obviously recalls the technique of defamiliarization that the Russian Formalists saw as the literary technique par excellence and as constitutive of the difference between literary and nonliterary discourse, but it even more directly recalls the alienation effect of Bertolt Brecht in the way it denies this difference and links the emergence of new perspectives on literature to specific social and political issues in the real world. In this sense, dystopian fiction also resembles science fiction, a genre with which it is often associated. One recalls, for example, Darko Suvin’s useful emphasis on "cognitive estrangement" as the central strategy of science fiction (Metamorphoses315). There is clearly a great deal of overlap between dystopian fiction and science fiction, and many texts belong to both categories. But in general dystopian fiction differs from science fiction in the specificity of its attention to social and political critique. In this sense, dystopian fiction is more like the projects of social and cultural critics: Nietzsche, Freud, Bakhtin, Adorno, Foucault, Althusser, and many others. Indeed, the turn toward dystopian modes in modern literature parallels the rather dark turn taken by a great deal of modern cultural criticism. Both dystopian literature and modern cultural criticism thus seem to respond to the air of crisis that has pervaded much of twentieth century thought. Mark Hillegas is absolutely correct that the "flood" of dystopian works by writers like Zamyatin, Huxley, and Orwell provides "one of the most revealing indexes to the anxieties of our age" (3). In his history of the genre of utopian fiction, http://legacy.abc-clio.com/print.aspx?isbn=9780313032868&id=0313291152-1 2/25 11/1/2019 ABC-CLIO eBooks Robert C. Elliott notes that developments in the twentieth century have led to widespread skepticism toward the possibility of utopia: To believe in utopia one must believe that through the exercise of their reason men can control and in major ways alter for the better their social environment. . . . To believe in utopia one must have faith of a kind that our history has made nearly inaccessible. This is one major form of the crisis of faith under which Western culture reels. (87) In the imagination of the modern skeptic, in short, it is much easier to visualize nightmares than dreams of the future, and in support of this point Elliott points toward the "antiutopian" vision of George Orwell1984 (1949). Orwell himself provides support for this point, having one character in 1984 describe the fictional society of Oceania as "the exact opposite of the stupid hedonistic Utopias that the old reformers imagined" (1984220). In addition, Elliott notes that many modern thinkers have been worried not that utopia cannot be realized, but that it can. Acknowledging the turn to dystopian visions in modern literary depictions of imaginary societies, Elliott diagnoses a suspicion of utopian concepts themselves: "Utopia is a bad word today not because we despair of being able to achieve it but because we fear it. Utopia itself (in a special sense of the term) has become the enemy" (89). In support of this thesis, Elliott adduces AldousHuxleyBrave New World (1932) and YevgenyZamyatinWe (1924), which he refers to as "negative utopias" societies in which utopian dreams of the "old reformers" have been realized, only to turn out to be nightmares. Indeed, numerous works of modern literature have been suspicious not only of the possibility of utopia, but of its very desirability, equating conventional utopias with paralysis and stagnation. Of course, dystopian literature has clear antecedents that are quite ancient. There is, for example, already a strong dystopian element in Aristophanes’s satirical response to the utopianism of Plato in ancient Greece. By the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries writers like Jonathan Swift were writing works that were centrally informed by dystopian energies. The Laputa of SwiftGulliver’s Travels can thus be seen as a direct response to the utopian visions of early scientific thinkers like Francis Bacon. 1 Indeed, the rise of science as a discourse of authority in the Enlightenment directly inspired both an explosion in utopian thought and a corresponding wave of dystopian reactions. It is thus in the course of the nineteenth centuryin which technological utopianism reached its peakthat dystopian literature becomes an important and identifiable cultural force. A number of developments in nineteenthcentury thought might be adduced to explain the gradual turn to dystopianism during the course of the century. For example, the Marxist vision of a coming workers’ paradise is one of the central instances of nineteenthcentury utopian thought, while at the same time the Marxist critique of capitalism has a a great deal in common with later dystopian visions. Meanwhile, Marxist analyses of the creation and interpellation of subjects by bourgeois ideology demonstrate the illusory nature of the sense of personal mastery experienced by the bourgeois subject, a sense of mastery central to Enlightenment utopianism. Such analyses also indicate that this sense of mastery already contained the seeds of its own destruction. Indeed, by the time Newtonian science reached its zenith in the nineteenth century (along with the imperialism and capitalism that it had helped to produce), scientific discoveries were already beginning to undermine the unlimited faith in the power of science that had been growing during the two previous centuries. Even a brief litany of scientific discoveries in the nineteenth century shows that science was beginning to point toward limitations on the ability of humanity to dominate its environment. For example, in 1850 the German physicistRudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius announced the second law of thermodynamics, which stated that the entropy of a closed system will always increase with time, regardless of circumstances. Entropy is a general measure of randomness in a system and has to do with the unavailability of energy in the system, so that this continual increase in entropy leads to a gradual decrease in available energy. What is significant in the second law of thermodynamics is the utter irreversibility of this process of entropic decay. Thus, contrary to the Victorian paradigm of continuing and limitless progress, this law presented humankind with the horrifying vision of a universe gradually decaying toward a condition of total randomness, total unavailability of energythe socalled heat death of the universe. If, as eighteenthcentury science had http://legacy.abc-clio.com/print.aspx?isbn=9780313032868&id=0313291152-1 3/25 11/1/2019 ABC-CLIO eBooks suggested, the universe ran like a giant clock, the second law of thermodynamics suggested that the clock was running down and that it could not be rewound. 2 The second law of thermodynamics was the first physical law to suggest that there were processes in nature that could not be reversed by any means. Meanwhile, in 1859CharlesDarwin published his On the Origin of Species, which suggested that humanity had evolved from the same origins and by the same natural processes as all other species. Completing the process begun by Copernicus, Darwin’s theory of evolution seemed to discredit once and for all any notion that the human species was specially created by God to rule the earth. Of course, in some ways evolution theory fit in well with Victorian notions of progress, and social Darwinists like Herbert Spencer made valiant attempts to combine the ideology of progress with the theory of evolution. But in fact evolution is highly aleatory; deprived of the guiding teleology of any divine plan (and combined with the growing sense of decay brought about by developments such as the formulation of the second law of thermodynamics), evolution more and more began to be conceived as having a dark side. In opposition to Spencer, Darwin’s great advocate Thomas Huxley argued that society was developing in ways that were antithetical to human nature, leading to a gradual increase in human misery that would eventually lead to the downfall of civilization. 3 And if humans had evolved from primitive animal ancestors, then what could prevent the process from being reversed in a new descent into animality? Indeed, by the end of the century, fears of this kind of degeneration had become widespread. 4 Marxism itself contributed to this growing sense that the Victorian ideal of progress implied not that things get better, but simply that things change, and very possibly for the worse. Hegelian history was in many ways the paradigm of nineteenthcentury notions of progress. In Hegel the inexorable dialectical march of history was guided by the teleology provided by the guiding spirit of God’s planthings always eventually change for the better and toward the fulfillment of this plan. But, despite the utopian element in his own thought, Marx’s demystification of Hegel removed the assurance provided by this teleology and made it possible to envision a dialectical history that leads not to utopia, but to disaster. Amidst all of these developments, the preoccupation with decadence in the last decade of the nineteenth centuryspurred by the chiliastic specter of the century’s endseems in retrospect to have been almost inevitable. It is also not surprising that dystopian literature became prominent in this same period. The latenineteenthcentury dystopian fictions of H. G. Wells were particularly important as harbingers of this trend, though earlier works like SamuelButler Erewhon already contained a strong element of dystopian reaction to nineteenthcentury technological utopianism. In the course of the twentieth century, dystopian energiesepitomized by the great dystopian fictions like We, Brave New World, and 1984have become far more prominent in both literature and cultural criticism than have utopian ones. Modern drama, as shown by the work of writers from Karel Čapek and Stanislaw Witkiewicz to Václav Havel and Edward Bond, has also been importantly informed by dystopian visions. Even genres like science fiction, initially energized (especially in America) largely by optimistic visions of the possibilities inherent in technological progress, have taken a dystopian turn in recent years with works (like the cyberpunk fiction of William Gibson and others) that show an attitude toward future technology that is ambivalent at best. And, in what may be even more indicative of a widespread pessimism, recent decades have seen the rise of a dystopian mood in popular culture as a whole. Many dystopian fictions have inspired popular films, with StanleyKubrick version of A Clockwork Orange being perhaps the best example of a group that also includes film versions of books like 1984 and The Handmaid’s Tale and films like A Boy and His Dog and Rollerball, based on short stories. Dystopian visions have in general constituted a popular and important modern film genre, including films as various as FritzLang seminal Metropolis, WoodyAllen comic Sleeper, TerryGilliamBrazil, RidleyScottBlade Runner, the ArnoldSchwarzenegger vehicle Running Man, and GeorgeLucasTHX 1138. As one would expect, this growing wave of dystopian visions has generated a certain amount of critical attention, and numerous individual fictions and filmsfrom the classics of Zamyatin, Huxley, and Orwell on up to the most contemporary of workshave been prominently discussed by critics in recent years. Studies centrally focusing on dystopian literature and on dystopian responses to utopianism include ChadWalsh From Utopia to Nightmare (first published in 1962) and GeorgeKatebUtopia and Its Enemies (1963). Probably the most useful treatment of modern dystopian literature is HillegasThe Future as Nightmare (1967), which itself was somewhat limited http://legacy.abc-clio.com/print.aspx?isbn=9780313032868&id=0313291152-1 4/25 11/1/2019 ABC-CLIO eBooks in scope by its insistence on relating all of the dystopian works discussed directly to the work of H. G. Wells. Several booklength studies have focused on both utopian and dystopian fiction during the last decade or so. Among the more notable of these studies are GarySaulMorsonThe Boundaries of Genre (1981), which is distinguished by its shrewd attention to questions of genre theory raised by utopian and dystopian fiction and KrishanKumarUtopia and AntiUtopia in Modern Times (1987), which is especially good in its delineation of the historical backgrounds of certain specific works. A recent study by DraganKlaic (1991) is also good in the scope of its coverage of utopian and dystopian visions in modern drama. Numerous essay collections have also been published on utopian and dystopian fiction, of which the one edited by Rabkin, Greenberg, and Olander is particularly useful. Curiously enough, though, there seem to have been no booklength studies devoted exclusively to dystopian fiction since Hillegas in 1967, a deficiency I have attempted to remedy in my recent book The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature. As a reference work, the present volume provides summary coverage of a broad range of dystopian works in a variety of genres. It is divided into several sections, each of which is arranged alphabetically by authors’ names for ease of reference. The first section summarizes dystopian elements in the works of a number of modern cultural critics, paying particular attention to the ways those elements parallel the concerns of writers of dystopian literature. The second section surveys several selected utopian works that have been especially important in establishing the utopian tradition against which dystopian literature reacts. In the next (and most comprehensive) section, several dozen works of dystopian fiction are summarized. The works in this section were selected to include the most important works of dystopian fiction from around the world and to suggest the varieties of styles and strategies that the writers of such fictions employ. The final two sections summarize a selected group of dystopian dramas and films, respectively. Far from comprehensive, these sections are intended to provide coverage of some of the more important works in these genres and to indicate the importance of dystopian energies in drama and film. All of the summaries of dystopian works are accompanied by selected bibliographies to aid those readers who wish to do further and more detailed research into any specific work. Full publication information for these sources is provided in the bibliography at the end of the book. NOTES 1. On Swift dialogue with early scientific utopianism, see Frietzsche. 2. See Buckley for a discussion of some of the ways the second law of thermodynamics contributed to a growing sense of decay in late Victorian England (669). 3. Huxley arguments on this score may be found in Evolution and Ethics. 4. See Kershner ("Degeneration") for an excellent discussion of the widespread popular fascination with the notion of degeneration around the turn of the century. See also the collection of essays edited by Chamberlin and Gilman for further discussions of various aspects of this phenomenon. This page has intentionally been left blank. 1 A GUIDE TO SELECTED MODERN CULTURAL CRITICISM WITH RELEVANCE TO DYSTOPIAN LITERATURE INTRODUCTION Both dystopian literature and social criticism derive considerable energies from a general modern skepticism about the possibility of an ideal society. Moreover, modern social and cultural critics like Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud, Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Mikhail Bakhtin, Louis Althusser, and Michel Foucault quite often show concerns that are highly reminiscent of those shown by writers of dystopian literature. As a result, an awareness of the work of such critics is extremely useful for gaining an understanding of the issues at stake in modern dystopian literature. This section briefly reviews the work of some of the most important modern social and cultural theorists and critics, paying special attention to the light that can be shed on dystopian literature by the work of these theorists and critics. See my The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature for a more extensive treatment of the points of contact between dystopian literature and the social criticism of such thinkers. THEODOR ADORNO (19031969) http://legacy.abc-clio.com/print.aspx?isbn=9780313032868&id=0313291152-1 5/25 11/1/2019 ABC-CLIO eBooks Theodor Adorno, an important figure in modern neoMarxist criticism, shares much of Marx’s analysis of the dystopian aspects of bourgeois society while lacking Marx’s faith in the ultimate establishment of a proletarian utopia. Indeed, Adorno’s pessimism is a central example of the dark turn in much of modern social and cultural criticism. Adorno’s difficult writing style (foreshadowing the styles of poststructuralist thinkers like Jacques Derrida) is an integral part of his thought, which is thereby rendered somewhat less accessible than it might otherwise be. Nevertheless, Adorno’s work obviously resonates with dystopian literature in a number of ways, and reading Adorno in conjunction with dystopian literature can help to clarify Adorno’s thought and to provide a theoretical framework within which to understand the issues at stake in that literature. A number of Adorno’s ideas are relevant to dystopian literature, as in his commentary late in his career on the "administered world" of later bourgeois society, a world the highly regimented nature of which has much in common with the "carceral society" of Michel Foucault, as well as the restrictive societies described in many dystopian fictions. But the most important dystopian element in Adorno’s work involves his careerlong critique (influenced by the philosophy of Nietzsche) of the utopian orientation of Enlightenment rationalism. This critique is most prominent in the essay The Concept of Enlightenment that appears in the volume The Dialectic of Enlightenment by MaxHorkheimer and Adorno. In this complex and difficult essay (which is both an argument against the tyranny of Enlightenment reason and a parodic performance that questions the validity of rational arguments in general) Horkheimer and Adorno suggest that the scientific impetus of the Enlightenment is informed by a quest not for a liberating truth, but for a power that ultimately enslaves. In particular, they suggest that the emphasis on the power of the individual in Enlightenment thought is related to a drive to dominate nature, a drive that inevitably turns back upon itself and leads to the formation of individuals who are internally repressed and of societies consisting of individual subjects who strive for domination of each other. Like many writers of dystopian literature, Horkheimer and Adorno do not oppose science itself, but merely the mechanical application of science. Enlightenment science, they argue, seeks not knowledge but information, not understanding but practical application. It thus leads not to genuine enlightenment, but to reinscription within the new myth of the power of technology: "With the abandonment of thought, which in its reified form of mathematics, machine, and organization avenges itself on the men who have forgotten it, enlightenment has relinquished its own realization" (41). For Horkheimer and Adorno, an uncritically accepted science leads not to discovery, but to mystification. For example, they argue that in the Enlightenment the growth of a purely instrumental science led to an increasing faith in the power of numerical computation to explain all aspects of life: "For the Enlightenment, whatever does not conform to the rule of computation and utility is suspect. . . . To the Enlightenment, that which does not reduce to numbers, and ultimately to one, becomes illusion; modern positivism writes it off as literature" (6 7). As a result of this turn to computation, they suggest, modern men are increasingly incapable of true individualism or of independent thinking of any kindin place of thought we have mere algorithms. The Horkheimer/Adorno depiction of modern bourgeois society resembles the oppressive societies of dystopian fiction in numerous ways. And their work is particularly relevant to dystopian fiction in that they reach their conclusions about the oppressive nature of modern society through direct confrontation with the ideology of science and reason that formerly had been the inspiration for numerous utopian visions. Moreover, though Horkheimer and Adorno may be more pessimistic than most, they are certainly not alone among neoMarxist critics in seeing a dystopian turn in modern society. Adorno’s writings often included a direct engagement with art and literature, and Adorno’s work as a whole suggests that art might potentially function as an effective counter to Enlightenment science, though he remains thoroughly skeptical about the possibility of instituting radical change through art or any other means. But he and Horkheimer also suggest that art and culture can function as tools of oppression. Horkheimer and Adorno are particularly critical of modern popular culture, which they see as being produced and disseminated by a massive Culture Industry whose goal is to numb the minds of the populace with a constant flow of banalities and thereby render them incapable of the kinds of critical abstraction required to mount a meaningful challenge to the official ideologies of modern society. They suggest that popular culture entertains and enthralls, http://legacy.abc-clio.com/print.aspx?isbn=9780313032868&id=0313291152-1 6/25 11/1/2019 ABC-CLIO eBooks subtly imposing mass conformity at the expense of any real aesthetic content, meanwhile stimulating its audience to consume not only its own products, but those of its advertisers. This analysis of popular culture closely resembles that implied in a number of works of dystopian literature, the oppressive regimes of which often employ popular culture as a central tool with which to control their subject populations. Aside from his own work, Adorno is important as a major force behind the the development of "critical theory," the style of social criticism associated with the "Frankfurt School" of neoMarxist thought. Many members of the Frankfurt School in addition to Adorno and Horkheimer have made contributions to modern cultural criticism that recall the concerns of writers of dystopian literature. One of the more important examples of such contributions is HerbertMarcuse’s One Dimensional Man, an analysis (informed by Freudian psychoanalysis) of certain personality types resulting from the effects of the regimentation of life in modern capitalist society. Marcuse, however, departs from Adorno in his ultimate endorsement of science and technology as means by which humanity might be released from most physical labor and thereby freed for cultural and intellectual pursuits. The most prominent recent heir to Adorno’s work is Jürgen Habermas, though Habermas himself significantly departs from the work of Adorno, maintaining in particular a strong faith in the ability of reason to work positive change in human society. Habermas thus seeks to recover what was valuable in the Enlightenment and to restore the sense that a better future can in fact derive logically and dialectically from the present. In that sense, then, Habermas is more a utopian than a dystopian thinker. At the same time, Habermas’s critical analyses of life in modern society (and particularly of the fragmentation of modern culture into separate noncommunicating realms) often have a strongly dystopian flavor. Selected bibliography:Aronowitz; A. Benjamin; Berman; Habermas ("Entwinement"); Jay; Lunn; Roblin; Rose; Wellmer; Wolin. LOUIS ALTHUSSER (19181990) Louis Althusser’s diagnosis of capitalist society, like any Marxist critique of that society, has strongly dystopian resonances. Althusser’s extensive body of neoMarxist criticism is particularly distinguished by his attempt to integrate Marxist thought with structuralist methods of analysis. This project centrally involves art and culture, and Althusser is especially concerned with delineating the complex relationship between art and ideology. From the point of view of dystopian thought, Althusser’s most important concept is probably the notion of "interpellation," or the "hailing of the subject"the process through which individuals are formed as subjects by powerful forces working in the interest of the prevailing ideology of a given society. In particular, Althusser emphasizes that the process of interpellation allows the existing power structure of capitalist society to maintain its domination over the general population without resorting to violence or force. Interpellation occurs in more subtle ways, through the workings of what Althusser calls "Ideological State Apparatuses" (ISAs), including official culture and specific institutions like churches and schools. Recalling Marx’s critique of religion as an "opiate of the masses," Althusser’s paradigmatic example of the phenomenon of interpellation is the ideology of Christianity, in which individuals are constituted as subjects both in subjection to and in the specular image of a central Absolute Subject (i.e., God). For Althusser, we do not form our attitudes so much as they form us, and "the category of the subject is only constitutive of all ideology insofar as all ideology has the function (which defines it) of ’constituting’ concrete individuals as subjects" (Lenin171). Althusser’s key notion of interpellation thus obviously has much in common with Adorno’s description of the workings of the Culture Industry. Althusser’s suggestion that individuals live very much in the power of large impersonal forces that exist beyond their understanding or even perception also shares a great deal with the depictions in many works of dystopian literature of manipulation of individuals by oppressive governments. Althusser’s meditations on the opposition between individual identity and social demands deal directly with the individual vs. society opposition that is probably the single most important issue dealt with by dystopian literature, though Althusser’s structuralist approach does tend to suggest that the individual is largely a social phenomenon and that the two poles of this opposition therefore cannot be neatly separated. Althusser’s focus on ideology as a shaping factor in the development of individual identity participates in a long Marxist tradition of the critique of ideology as false consciousness. At the same time, Althusser identifies ideology not simply as an illusion that hides the truth of social practices but as the material fabric within which those practices are necessarily carried out. http://legacy.abc-clio.com/print.aspx?isbn=9780313032868&id=0313291152-1 7/25 11/1/2019 ABC-CLIO eBooks Althusser’s goal, then, is not to avoid or overcome ideology (which would be impossible), but to attempt to understand and delineate its workings so that individual subjects can interact with ideology in more critical and productive ways. Still, Althusser’s discussion of interpellation has much in common with the frequent arguments of Marxist critics that ideological manipulation of individual psyches lies at the heart of the bourgeois conception of the free autonomous individual, a conception that turns out to be nothing more than a ruse to hide the fact that individuals are largely determined not by their own choices but by the needs of the economic and political systems in which they live. Michel Pêcheux felicitously terms this process the "Munchausen effect" (after the legendary baron who was able to lift himself into the air by pulling his own hair): the bourgeois subject is convinced that he is his own cause and creator, being totally unaware that he is the result of ideological forces beyond his control (Pêcheux1089). Such revelations that myths of individual power and autonomy are mere illusions clearly have much in common with the dystopian motif of the suppression of individual desire by demands for social conformity; in a more general sense, such Marxist critiques of the myth of bourgeois individualism often resemble dystopian demystifications of the myths of unlimited potential often associated with utopian thought. Althusser’s distinctively structuralist style of Marxist thought and his central emphasis on the relationship between ideology and culture have made his work important for a number of subsequent cultural critics, especially those with a particular interest in the political dimensions of art. Althusser’s most important protegé is Pierre Macherey, whose focus on the production of literary texts within the cultural context of official ideologies suggests important ways that literature might oppose the process of interpellation by revealing the ideological illusions upon which official society is based. For example, Macherey notes that literary language is influenced by the other discourses (scientific, theoretical, everyday speech) that surround it in its historical moment. For him much of the ideological power of literature comes from the way its language is able to mimic and parody these other discourses: "Mingling the real uses of language in an endless confrontation, it concludes by revealing their truth. Experimenting with language rather than inventing it, the literary work is both the analogy of a knowledge and a caricature of customary ideology" (59). Literary discourse for Macherey is not about "reality," then, so much as it is about language itself; it is "a contestation of language rather than a representation of reality" (61). In short, literary language makes visible ideological orientations within language that might remain hidden in the discourse of the everyday world. Such revelations through the defamiliarizing lens of fiction clearly represent a central strategy of dystopian literature, for which Macherey’s work is thus highly suggestive. However, in his later work (as in his important essay with Etienne Balibar), Macherey departs somewhat from Althusser’s identification of art as a special practice situated somewhere midway between science and ideology, emphasizing the participation of literature in its social context in ways that make it impossible to identify literature as a special discourse apart from others. This development in Macherey’s thought resonates with the frequent blurring of the boundary between fiction and social criticism that occurs in dystopian literature. Selected bibliography:P. Anderson; Balibar and Macherey; Bennett; Dowling; Eagleton (Criticism); Jameson (Political); Macherey. MIKHAIL BAKHTIN (18951975) The work of the Russian thinker Mikhail Bakhtin has been one of the most influential forces in literary theory and criticism of the past twentyfive years. Bakhtin’s large and diverse body of work includes meditations on history, sociology, philosophy, psychology, linguistics, and literature; his writings (including a group of socalled disputed texts that may in fact have been authored by Bakhtin associates like Pavel Medvedev and V. N. Voloshinov) have had a major impact on thinkers in all of these areas. Bakhtin is perhaps still best known in the West for his use of the medieval carnival as a metaphor for explosive emancipatory transgression against the prevailing norm, especially in his book Rabelais and His World. Here Bakhtin figures the medieval carnival and the carnivalesque energies of the writing of Rabelais as special loci of utopian release from the oppressive sterility of life in the Catholic Middle Ages. At first glance, then, Bakhtin’s work would appear to include a strong utopian component. But there is already a subtle dystopian element even in Bakhtin’s seemingly utopian apotheosis of the medieval carnival. In particular, Bakhtin’s description of medieval society in the time of Rabelais can be read at least partially as a commentary on the dystopian conditions that prevailed in Bakhtin’s own Stalinist Russia. Moreover, the Rabelais book is in fact something of an aberration in http://legacy.abc-clio.com/print.aspx?isbn=9780313032868&id=0313291152-1 8/25 11/1/2019 ABC-CLIO eBooks Bakhtin’s work, which is typically sober and restrained, dealing more with constraints and limitations than with celebratory emancipation. For example, Bakhtin consistently regards the human subject as a product of social forces and interactions, thereby recalling Althusser’s notion of interpellation in his suggestion that the individual is an integral part of society rather than an autonomous entity separate from it. For Bakhtin, however, the process of subjective constitution does appear somewhat more open and fluid than it does in Althusser’s work. Bakhtin suggests that the individual self is not a fixed entity which then goes out to encounter other selves and the world. On the contrary, the self is the fluid product of an ongoing process of development: "As long as a person is alive he lives by the fact that he is not yet finalized, that he has not yet uttered his ultimate word" (Problems59). In short, the self develops through an ongoing dialogue with others and with the external world, consistent with Bakhtin’s vision of subjectivity as a boundary phenomenon between different consciousnesses, as something that arises not prior to intersubjective exchange but as a product of that exchange. This dynamic model of the self is consistent with Bakhtin’s dynamic model of history in general. For Bakhtin there is no "last word," no ultimate end toward which the process of history moves. This insistence on ongoing change and development clearly runs contrary to utopian thought in many ways, and much of Bakhtin’s work seems designed specifically as a critique, albeit oblique, of the utopian impulses of communism. In the same vein, probably the most fundamental of the many reasons for which Bakhtin considers the novel a special genre is the novel’s ability to grow and evolve in time, responding to and participating in processes of historical change. Rather than functioning according to rigidly defined principles, the novel by its very nature challenges its own principles and thereby remains ever new, ever in touch with contemporary reality. In order to maintain this dynamic adaptive ability, the novel must continually challenge predefined notions of what it should be. It is therefore an inherently antiauthoritarian genre, "a genre that is ever questing, ever examining itself and subjecting its established forms to review. Such, indeed, is the only possibility open to a genre that structures itself in a zone of direct contact with developing reality" (Dialogic39). The novel as a genre is "both critical and selfcritical, one fated to revise the fundamental concepts of literariness and poeticalness dominant at the time" (Dialogic10). Bakhtin thus figures the novel as a genre that opposes any sense of final perfection and is thus fundamentally antiutopian in its orientation. On the other hand, within the dark Stalinist context in which Bakhtin did most of his work, a continuing faith in the possibility of change bespeaks not a dystopian cynicism but an almost utopian optimism. Indeed, if much of the work of thinkers like Adorno and Benjamin can be seen as a direct reaction to German fascism, so too can a great deal of Bakhtin’s thought be seen as disguised assault on the Stalinist regime that would inspire dystopian classics like 1984. In addition to his depiction of the monological authority of medieval Catholicism in Rabelais and His World as very much an allegorical counterpart to Stalinism, Bakhtin’s distinctive figuration of language as a potential locus for subversion of official ideologies is closely related to his own contemporary context. In their critical biography of Bakhtin Katerina Clark and Michael Holquist thus note that Bakhtin’s continual emphasis on linguistic energy and diversity had special resonances in a Stalinist context that was characterized by official attempts to limit and control language: The official language had become homogenized and dominated all aspects of public life. Most literature and literary scholarship were mere subfunctions of the official rhetoric and myths. Official pronouncements were absolutely authoritative and final. (267) Bakhtin’s central emphasis on language places him in the company of a wide range of other modern theorists and critics of both literature and society. Bakhtin argues that the conflicts and rivalries among different groups in society can be fundamentally figured as a clash between different languages; Jacques Derrida claims that certain habitual methods of Western "logocentric" thought are embedded in the metaphysical nature of language itself; Foucault pictures society as a swirl of intersecting and competing discourses; Jacques Lacan suggests that even the unconscious mind is structured like a language; and numerous feminist thinkers see a masculine bias in the conventional structure of language and attempt to explore feminine alternatives. Such theoretical studies of language are highly relevant to dystopian literature, most of them in one way or another indicating that the kind of language we use powerfully impacts the way we think, and indeed the way we are. Both modern language theory and modern dystopian fiction have been powerfully informed by the work of the American linguists Benjamin Whorf and Edward Sapir. The so called http://legacy.abc-clio.com/print.aspx?isbn=9780313032868&id=0313291152-1 9/25 11/1/2019 ABC-CLIO eBooks Whorf or WhorfSapir hypothesis argues that the language we use powerfully influences the way we perceive reality, that the so called real world is largely a linguistic construct. The governments described in dystopian literature tend to focus their energies on language not only because it is a potentially powerful tool with which to control and manipulate their subjects but also because language may harbor powerfully subversive energies that such governments would like to suppress. Dystopias, in short, tend to be informed by what Bakhtin calls "authoritative" languagelanguage that can brook no questioning or disagreement: "The authoritative word demands that we acknowledge it, that we make it our own; it binds us, quite independent of any power it might have to persuade us internally; we encounter it with its authority already fused to it" (Dialogic342). But for Bakhtin, always seeking signs of hope, language itself is inherently inimical to such authoritarianism. He argues that all language is dialogic to some extent, and that no single group or attitude can ever dominate language entirely. In every society there will be a dominant discourse (actually, a family of discourses), but that discourse can only define itself in relation to other repressed discourses with which it maintains a dialogic tension. Thus, the very nature of language itself indicates that there will always be a possibility that opposing voices can arise, even if they must do so through parodic manipulation of the language of authority. Bakhtin sees language as a powerful political weapon, but it is a weapon that is inherently twoedgedit may serve as a means of oppression, but it serves at the same time as a means of liberation. Bakhtin’s commentaries on the dialogic potential of language are crucial to his influential studies of the novel as a genre. For example, Bakhtin argues that there can be no authoritative language in the novel and that one of the most powerfully subversive aspects of the novel is its tendency to expose the pretensions of any authoritative discourse that is brought into it. In Bakhtin’s view, the novel does not simply use language to represent reality in a transparent way. On the contrary, language itself is an object of representation (and criticism) in the novel, and authoritative discourse is stripped of its authority when represented in this way because the inherently dialogic and multivoiced linguistic environment of the novel is by its very nature critical of such authority. The novel form is oriented toward the creation and depiction of a world, and in the utopian form this world is endowed with wholeness and perfection. But for Bakhtin the novel undermines its own utopian impulses through the antiauthoritarian texture of its heteroglossic language. The novel as a genre thus inherently includes certain dystopian impulses, which are then particularly emphasized in dystopian novels. As a whole Bakhtin’s work provides a wide variety of insights into the issues treated by dystopian literature, whether these issues involve concepts of history and social change, the social constitution of human subjects, the political ramifications of language, or the ideological implications of specific literary forms and genres. Bakhtin’s work thus offers one of the most powerful theoretical frameworks within which to read dystopian literature, just as that work has proved useful to critics of a wide range of literary works in the past few decades. Selected bibliography:Clark and Holquist; Holquist (Dialogism); Morson (Bakhtin); Morson and Emerson (Mikhail Bakhtin); Morson and Emerson (Rethinking Bakhtin); Striedter. WALTER BENJAMIN (18921940) Walter Benjamin is one of the most important figures of modern neo Marxist criticism. Furthermore, the often melancholy tone of Benjamin’s descriptions of modern society is a central indication of the dystopian flavor of much neoMarxist cultural commentary. It is thus no surprise that many of the authors most central to Benjamin’s literary criticism (Brecht, Kafka) often write dystopian works. Moreover, numerous aspects of Benjamin’s commentary on developments in modern capitalist society are highly relevant to the typical concerns of writers of dystopian literature. In particular, the strong note of nostalgia that informs much of Benjamin’s work often involves highly dystopian descriptions of conditions in the modern world, even as it sometimes tends to suggest a rather utopian longing for the past. In works of cultural and literary criticism like The Origin of German Tragic Drama, OneWay Street, and Understanding Brecht, Benjamin addresses a number of important dystopian issues. Benjamin’s most widely known work is contained in the essays in the volume Illuminations. Especially important are the essays The Storyteller and The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. These essays are also especially relevant to the concerns of dystopian literature. In The Storyteller, for example, Benjamin argues in a rather dystopian mode that in the modern world the ability to tell meaningful stories is rapidly becoming a lost art. Storytelling for Benjamin is first http://legacy.abc-clio.com/print.aspx?isbn=9780313032868&id=0313291152-1 10/25