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D U A R * * * O O U R P E S Crossroads of Antiquity EDITED BY LISA R. BRODY AND GAIL L. HOFFMAN DU RA-EU ROPOS CROSSROADS OF ANTIQUITY — LocatedinaregioncontestedbytheSeleucid^ParthianândlatertheRomanEmpires andontheEuphrates — Riverâmajornorth-southtransportationartery Dura-Europoswashometoamulticulturalpopulationduring itshistory.SettledbyMacedonianveteransaround300BCE^ParthianscapturedDura-Europoslateinthesec- ondcenturyBCE,TheParthiansmadethecityintoafortressânditflourishedasatradingpostonthewestern borderoftheirhugeempire.Inthemid-secondcenturyCE^theRomansseizedthecityeventuallyturningit intoamajorgarrisonontheirempireseasternfrontier.Remainsofparchment^papyrfandcarvedinscriptions attesttothenumerouslanguagesspokenandwritteninancientDura-EuroposîncludingGreeksLatinÂramaic (PalmyreneandSyriac)^MiddlePersian^Parthian^HebrewândSafaitic,Thereligionsthatcoexistedinthecity speaktoanequallycomplexculturalenvironment^withtemplestoGreeksRoman,andnumerousNearEastern gods,aswellasdedicatedplacesofworshipforChristiansandJews, AbandonedafteraSasaniansiegeandsackin256CE,thesiteremainedvirtuallyunexploreduntil1928,when full-scaleexcavationswereinitiatedthroughacollaborationbetweenYaleUniversityandtheErenchAcademie desInscriptionsetBelles-Lettres,ThediscoveriesatDura-Europosduringthe1920sand1930smadeadramatic impactonbothscholarsandthegeneralpublic.Buildingsuncoveredincludedasynagoguepaintedwithbiblical scenes(somethingthoughtimpossiblegiventheprohibitionagainstfiguralimagesinJewishlaw);oneofthefirst Christianhousechurches,withtheearliest-knownbaptistery;andaplaceofworshipforthemysteryreligionof Mithraism,Suchdiscoveriesfundamentallyalteredtheunderstandingofreligiouspracticeinantiquity.Inaddi- tion,archaeologistsuncoveredatreasuretroveofwell-preservedmaterials,suchaspapyri,parchments,painted woodandreedshields,rushbaskets,woodencatapultbolts,andleatherandmetalhorsearmor.Thisevidence providesasurprisinglycomplexandfullpictureoflifeinanancientcommunityalongthebusyEuphratesRiver, AccompanyingtheexhibitionDura-Europos:CrossroadsofAntiquityatBostonCollegesMcMullenMuseumof Art(Eebruary5-June5,2011),thispublicationincludesessaysbyawiderangeofspecialists(archaeologists,art historians,linguists,historians,andtheologians)andspanstheHellenistictotheIslamicperiod.Liketheexhibi- tion,thebookaimstoreintegratethinkingaboutthecityofDura-Europos,Articlesthatnormallywouldappear indivergentandspecializedjournalsappeartogetherhere,encouragingconsiderationofthevastrangeofsignifi- cancethatthesematerialshaveinthescholarlyworld.Liketheancientcity,wherethereweremyriadcultures incontactandincommunication,thepublicationbreaksdisciplinaryboundariesandplacesscholarsofDura- Europosindialoguewitheachotherandwiththepublic,exploringinteractionsamongthedisparatecultural, religious,andprofessionalgroupsthatinhabitedDura-Europos, D U A R ‘ • O O U R P E S Crossroads of Antiquity EDITED BY LISA R. BRODY AND GAIL L. HOFEMAN 1 ThispublicationisissuedinconjunctionwiththeexhibitionDura-Europos:CrossroadsofAntiquity,organizedbytheMcMullenMuseumofArt, BostonCollegeandtheYaleUniversityArtGallery. McMullenMuseumofArt,BostonCollege February5-June5,201 OrganizedbytheMcMullenMuseumofArt,BostonCollegeandtheYaleUniversityArtGallery,Dura-Europos:CrossroadsofAntiquityhas beencuratedbyLisaR.Brody(YaleUniversityArtGallery)andGailL.Hoffman(BostonCollege,ClassicsDepartment)withsupportfrom theNationalEndowmentfortheArts,BostonCollege,andthePatronsoftheMcMullenMuseum.Additionalsupportwasprovidedbythe NewtonCollegeclassof1965. NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FORTHEARTS Copyright©2011bytheMcMullenMuseumofArt,BostonCollege,ChestnutHill,Mass.02467. LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2010942145 ISBN:9781892850164 DistributedbytheUniversityofChicagoPress Exhibitiondesign:DianaLarsen Objectphotography:RichHouseandAnthonyDeCamillo Additionalphotography:JessicaSmolinski Copyediting:MargaretNeeley Bookdesign:JohnMcCoy THIS PUBLICATION IS FUNDED IN PART BY THE PEGGY SIMONS MEMORIAL PUBLICATIONS FUND CONTENTS PREFACE 5 INTRODUCTION 7 REGIONALMAP 14 PLAN OF DURA-EUROPOS 15 LISAR.BRODY 17 YALE UNIVERSITYAND DURA-EUROPOS: FROM EXCAVATIONTO EXHIBITION CAROLE.SNOW 33 PRESERVATION OFARTANDARTIFACTSFROM DURA- EUROPOS:ACONSERVATOR'S PERSPECTIVE GAILL.HOFFMAN 45 THEORYANDMETHODOLOGY:STUDYOF IDENTITIESUSING ARCHAEOLOGICALEVIDENCE FROM DURA-EUROPOS MARGARETOLIN 71 THEEMIGRESCHOLARSOF DURA-EUROPOS PAULJ.KOSMIN 95 THE FOUNDATIONAND EARLYLIFEOF DURA-EUROPOS SHEILAS.BLAIRANDJONATHANM.BLOOM 111 SYRIAANDTHEMIDDLEEUPHRATESAFTERDURA PAMELABERGER 123 THETEMPLES/TABERNACLESINTHE DURA- EUROPOSSYNAGOGUE PAINTINGS TESSARAJAK 141 THE DURA-EUROPOSSYNAGOGUE: IMAGES OFACOMPETITIVECOMMUNITY CHARLESB.MCCLENDON 155 THEARTICULATION OFSACREDSPACEINTHESYNAGOGUE ANDCHRISTIAN BUILDINGATDURA-EUROPOS MICHAELPEPPARD 169 NEWTESTAMENTIMAGERYINTHE EARLIESTCHRISTIAN BAPTISTERY 11 PATRICIADELEEUW 189 APEACEFUL PLURALISM:THE DURENEMITHRAEUM, SYNAGOGUE,ANDCHRISTIAN BUILDING LUCINDADIRVEN 20 STRANGERSANDSOJOURNERS:THE RELIGIOUS BEHAVIOROF PALMYRENESANDOTHERFOREIGNERSIN DURA-EUROPOS MAURAK.HEYN 221 THETERENTIUSFRIEZEIN CONTEXT A.BAIRD 235 J. THE HOUSESOF DURA-EUROPOS:ARCHAEOLOGY, ARCHIVE,ANDASSEMBLAGE ANNOLGAKOLOSKI-OSTROW 25 DURA-EUROPOS:WATER, BATHS, LATRINES,AND THEGODDESS FORTUNAINA DESERTCITY RICHARDA.GROSSMANN 275 ANCIENTGLASS FROM DURA-EUROPOS IN PERSPECTIVE NANCYNETZER 283 THE"CELTIC" BRONZESFROM DURA- EUROPOS: CONNECTIONSTOBRITAIN SIMONJAMES 295 DARKSECRETSOFTHEARCHIVE: EVIDENCEFOR "CHEMICALWARFARE"ANDMARTIALCONVERGENCES INTHESIEGE-MINESOF DURA-EUROPOS OBJECTS INTHEEXHIBITION 319 BIBLIOGRAPHY 377 5 PREFACE Thestoryofthisexhibitionbeginsin2007whenGailHoffman,afacultymemberintheClassicsandFineArts departmentsatBostonCollege,presentedtheMcMullenwiththepossibilityoforganizinganexhibitionof objectsfromtheYaleUniversityArtGallery.Hoffmanhadbeencontactedbyafellowarchaeologist,LisaBrody, whohadrecentlybecomeAssociateCuratorofAncientArtattheYaleUniversityArtGallery,Brodywashoping toorganizeatravelingexhibitionfromhercollectionswhiletheywereinstorageduringgalleryrenovations.The McMullenimmediatelyembracedtheideaandproposedthatHoffmanandBrody,inconsultationwithscholars attheirinstitutions,conceiveathemefortheexhibitionandaccompanyingvolumeofessaysthatwouldattract scholarsfromvariousdisciplinestoengageinnewresearchandrethinkabodyofmaterial.Afterdeliberation withcuratorsandfacultyfromYaleUniversityandBostonCollege,HoffmanandBrodyconcludedthatexplo- rationoftheobjectsexcavatedattheSyriancityofDura-EuroposbyaYaleteamofarchaeologistsbetween 1928and1937(about12,000ofwhichresideintheYaleUniversityArtGallery)providedarareopportunity forscholarlyexplorationaboutinterrelationshipsofethnicandreligiousgroupswithinanancientcityandfor areassessmentofhowthecitymayhavefunctionedasacrossroadormeetingpointforseveralancientciviliza- tionsandcultures. Tothatend,BrodyandHoffmangatheredanoutstandinggroupofarthistorians,archaeologists,philolo- gists,linguists,classicists,theologians,andhistorians,fromtheirinstitutions,othersinNorthAmerica,and Europe,tocontributetothepublicationandtorefinetheexhibition’sthematicfoci.Theythenselectedobjects fordisplaythatwouldbestreflectthesethemes.Theychose75 objectsfromwhichtheycouldexplorethe — manyandvariedidentitiesofpeoplewholefttheirmarkonDura-Europos.Many likewomen,children,and — slaves excludedfromwrittenhistoriesareonlyknownthroughthearchaeologicalrecord.Theysoughtto examinetheeffectthegeographicreachoftheRomanmilitaryhadonthecity’sculture.Fortheexhibition’s installation,theyproposedtopartiallyreconstructthemostwell-knownofthecity’sspacesdedicatedtoChris- tian,Jewish,andMithraicreligiouspractice,inanefforttomakevisiblethemanysimilaritiesamongthemin architectureanddecoration. — The curators’ expertise, orga—nizationaltalents, creativeintellectualvision, andmagnanimity all con- spicuousthroughouttheproject havemadethisamostjoyousenterprise;thus,itistothemthatweowe 6 ourgreatestgratitude.WeowethankstoJ.A,Baird,PamelaBerger,SheilaBlair,JonathanBloom,LisaBrody, PatriciaDeLeeuw,LucindaDirven,RichardGrossmann,MauraHeyn,GailHoffman,SimonJames,AnnOlga Koloski-Ostrow,PaulKosmin,CharlesMcClendon,MargaretOlin,MichaelPeppard,TessaRajak,andCarol Snow,forcontributingessaystothisvolume.Wealsoexpressappreciationtootherswhocontributedideas totheproject: Charles (Ted)Ahern, KirstenAtaoguz, SusanneEbbinghaus, ChristineKondoleon, Susan — Matheson,DianaMcDonald,PhemePerkins,andDavidVanderhooft alldistinguishedscholarsofthean- cientworld. ItiswithdeepappreciationthatweacknowledgethecollaborationofouresteemedcolleaguesattheYale UniversityArtGallery:JockReynolds,theHenryJ.HeinzIIDirector;SusanMatheson,theMollyandWalter BareissCuratorofAncientArtandChiefCurator;IanMcClure,theSusanMorseHillesChiefConservator; PatriciaSherwinGarland, SeniorConservatorofPaintings;L.LynneAddison,Registrar; andAmyDowe, SeniorAssociateRegistrar.Thevalueoftheircontributionsisimmeasurable. ColleaguesattheMcMullenMuseum,acrossourUniversity,andbeyond,havecontributedtheirtalentsto thiscomplexproject.Inparticular,DianaLarsendesignedtheexhibitionsinstallationtoevokevariousarchi- tecturalspacesintheancientcity.SheppardBarnett,GiovanniBuonapane,JosephFigueiredo,andNicholas Mastropollconstructedarchitecturalelementsfortheinstallationwithextraordinaryskill.Indesigningthis volume,theexhibitionsgraphics,andtheWebsite,JohnMcCoyhaselevatedtexttoart.KerryBurkeandMi- chaelSwansonprovidedsuperbdigitalreproductionsfortheinstallation.RichHouse,AnthonyDeCamillo, andJessicaSmolinskioftheYaleUniversityArtGallerysuppliedexcellentphotographsforthecatalogue.The extraordinarycaretakenbyMargaretNeeleyineditingthisvolumeandtheexhibitiontextswasinvaluable.In- ternsMarieConger,FrancescaFalzone,KathrynFox,ElizabethLobkowicz,SudarsanaMohanty,PeterScher, KelseaWigmore,andIndiaWinteraidedintheexhibitionsoverallorganization.Wearegratefultomembersof — ourofficeofadvancement especiallyjamesHusson,SimonWelsby,CatherineConcannon,MaryLouCrane, — JoanneScibilia,andSusanComeau whoaidedourfundingefforts.Wewouldalsoliketoacknowledgethe contributiontoresearchforthisexhibitionbystudentsintheseminartaughtbyHoffmanandme:JungHee Choi,MarieConger,CatherineHoward,PaulLindholm,DanielMcCarthy,ElizabethMcLain,RichardMills, SudarsanaMohanty,EmilyMoloney,ElizabethMoy,EricNeumann,ErinRoche,andLucyWatson. Wecouldnothaveattemptedsuchanambitiousprojectwereitnotforthecontinuedgenerosityofthe administrationofBostonCollegeandtheMcMullenfamily.WeespeciallythankPresidentWilliamP.Leahy, S.J.;ProvostCutbertoGarza;ChancellorJ.DonaldMonan,S.J.;ViceProvostPatriciaDeLeeuw;andDeanof ArtsandSciencesDavidQuigley.FormajorsupportoftheexhibitionweareindebtedtotheNationalEndow- mentfortheArts,afederalagency,andthePatronsoftheMcMullenMuseum,chairedbyC.MichaelDaley. AdditionalsupportwasprovidedbytheNewtonCollegeclassof1965inmemoryofPriscillaDurkin.With thisvolume,theMuseuminauguratessupportfromanewpublicationfundnamedinmemoryofourdocent PeggySimonswhodiedin2009;themulticulturalinquiryembodiedwithinwasasclosetoherheartasshe remainstotheheartsofallattheMcMullenwhoknewher. Nancy Netzer Directorand ProfessorofArtHistory 7 INTRODUCTION Duringthe1920sand1930s;YaleUniversityandtheFrenchAcademiedesInscriptionsetBelles-Lettres collaboratedtoexcavatetheancientsiteofDura-Europos.Theproject’spartageagreement(preservedin theDura-EuroposarchivesattheYaleUniversityArtGallery)dividedthefindsattheendofeachseason betweenYaleandtheNationalMuseuminDamascus.Asaresult^thecollectionoftheArtGallerynow includesanassemblageofapproximatelytwelvethousandexcavatedartifactsfromDura-Europos.Anexten- sivearchiveoffieldnotebooks^drawings^plansândphotographsfromtheYale-Frenchexpeditionisalso maintainedbytheGallery’sDepartmentofAncientArt.Thisinvaluableresourceallowstheworksofart tobeputintotheirarchaeologicalandhistoricalcontextsothattheobjectsandstructuresfoundatDura- Europoscanbeunderstoodnotonlyinisolationbutalsoasinteractingpartsofawhole. UponarrivingatYaleinthe1930s;theobjectsfromDura-Europoswereplacedonviewintheexhi- bitionhallsoftheArtGallerywheretheyattractedinternationalattention.Bythe1980s;theamountof publicinterestinthecollectionmotivatedSusanMatheson,theGallery’sMollyandWalterBareissCura- torofAncientArt;toorganizeaspecialexhibitionfocusingonthesite.^Duetotheirconstantpopularity manypiecesremainedondisplayaftertheshowclosed.OvertheyearS;severalothermuseumshavemade requeststoexhibitobjectsfromYale’sDura-Europoscollectiononalong-termorshort-termbasis.Painted ceilingtilesfro—mtheSynagogue^forinstanceâreexhibitedatt—heJewishMuseuminNewYorkCityand severalobjects includingsculptures^textilesândceilingtiles canbeseenintheancientNearEastern galleriesoftheMetropolitanMuseumofArt.Otherobjectshaveappearedinspecialexhibitionsatmuse- umsnationwide. WhentheGallery’sKahnbuildingclosedforrenovationsin2003;theDura-Europosobjectswere placedinstorage.By2007;whenLisaBrodyjoinedthestaff;planswereunderwayforanotherrenovation oftheGallerythatwouldincludeapermanentthematicinstallationonDura-Europos(scheduledtoopen in2012).Inanticipationoftheopening;Brodyproposedtoorganizeaspecialexhibitionontheancient citythatwouldencompasshercurrentresearchandthatofothersinthefield.Withencouragementfrom SusanMathesonandDirectorJockReynolds;shechoseGailHoffmanashercollaboratorandtheMcMul- lenMuseumastheexhibition’svenue. 8 Becausemanyofthefragileartifactsrequiredconservation,thearrivalofCarolSnowattheGalleryin 2008asthemuseumsfirstobjectsconservatorandYalesacquisitionofanew,largeconservationfacilityon itsWestCampusplayedcrucialrolesintheimplementationofthepro)ect.Theworkscouldnowbesystem- aticallytreatedandpreparedfordisplay.Severalmajorprojectswereundertaken,includingconservationof thewallpaintingsfromtheChristianBuilding,displayedforthefirsttimeattheMcMullen,andreconstruc- tionoftheMithraeumshrineforinstallationintherenovatedGallery. Theresultingexhibition,Dura-Europos:CrossroadsojAnticpiity,displays75objects(seecolorplatesin — — thisvolume)thatreflect andpermitexplorationof themanyethnicgroupswithintheancientcity’s populationandrevealtheculturalinteractionsthatwerecommonintheancientworld.Byrecountingthe site’sdiscoveryaswellashistoricalandarchaeologicalimportanceandbyexaminingtheextraordinarypres- ervationofitsexcavatedmaterial,theinstallationencouragesviewerstofocusonthephysicalremainsas akeytoimaginingtheinhabitantsofthecity.Visitorsfirstexperiencearchitecturalspacesthroughphysi- calandvirtualreconstructions,thentheyexploretheinterrelationshipbetweenthespaces’useandtheir decorations.Anewlydesignedcomputerkioskpresentsreconstructionsandrenderingsofthesiteandits majormonumentsaswellasexcavationphotographs,drawings,andbuildingplansfromtheDura-Europos archives.Alarge,printedsiteplanlinksobjectsfromthegallerieswiththelocationoftheirdiscovery. The objectsonview,therefore,emergebothasworksofaestheticvalueandasartifactsthattellthestoryofan importantcitylocatedatasignificantculturalcrossroads. AlmostthirtyyearsafterSusanMatheson’sexhibitionatYale,theexhibitionattheMcMullenstrivesto considernewdirectionsinscholarshipandanalysispermittedbythewell-preservedandwell-documented materialrecordofthecityanditsmulticulturalpopulation.Fromtheearliestphasesofthecity(ca.300-113 BCE),Greek-influencedelementsappearedmostnotablyinthegriddedstreetplan,agora,andfortifications, aswellasinreligion,art,andlanguage.Someearlyinhabitants,however,wereoflocalSyro-Mesopotamian origin;theirnativelanguages,religions,andculturalelementslatermergedwithimportedGreekones.Dur- ingalong,prosperousperiodofParthiancontrol(ca.113BCE-165CE),localelementscametothefore. Theagorafilledinwithshopsandcametoresembleaneasternsouk.TemplesconformedtoMesopotamian courtyardstructuresratherthantoGreekplans.InthesecondcenturyCE,whentheRomansseizedDura- Europos,yetmoreculturalandethnicpresencesarrived(forexample,thisiswhentheChristianandJewish communitiesfirstbecamevisibleandthefollowersofMithras,mainlysoldiers,came). Subgroupsfoundwithinthecity’spopulationincludedSyrians(especiallyPalmyrenes),Mesopota- mians,Greeks,Romansoldiers,conscripted“barbarians”fromNorthernEurope,Jews,andChristians. Inscriptions,papyri,andgraffitiappearedinGreek,Aramaic(includingPalmyrene,Syriac,andHatraean), Latin,MiddlePersian(Iranian),Parthian,andSafaitic.Residentspracticednumerousprofessionsbesides soldiering;therewereshopkeepers,entertainers,painters,glassmakers,scribes,jewelers,metalworkers, farmers,priests,politicians,aswellaslegalandadministrativepersonnel.Alllefttheirmarkonthearchaeo- logicalremainsofthecity,permittinganalysisoftheexcavationandartifactstoilluminatethemanycultural interactionscommonintheancientMediterraneanworld. Boththeexhibitionandthispublicationhighlightrecentscholarshipaswellasareasthatstillpose questions.SomeoftheexcavatedremainsfromDura-Europosreceiveddetailedstudyandpublication; manyotherswerenotedonlyinpreliminaryreports.Scholarlyinteresthascenteredontherelativelywell-