DTIC ADA603657: Soldier-Portable Battery Supply: Foreign Dependence and Policy Options

0.32 MB·English

by  Defense Technical Information Center

CHILDREN AND FAMILIES The RAND Corporation is a nonprofit institution that helps improve policy and
EDUCATION AND THE ARTS decisionmaking through research and analysis.
ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
This electronic document was made available from www.rand.org as a public service
HEALTH AND HEALTH CARE
of the RAND Corporation.
INFRASTRUCTURE AND
TRANSPORTATION
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
6
LAW AND BUSINESS Skip all front matter: Jump to Page 1
NATIONAL SECURITY
POPULATION AND AGING
Support RAND
PUBLIC SAFETY
Purchase this document
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
TERRORISM AND Browse Reports & Bookstore
HOMELAND SECURITY
Make a charitable contribution
For More Information
Visit RAND at www.rand.org
Explore the RAND Corporation
View document details
Limited Electronic Distribution Rights
This document and trademark(s) contained herein are protected by law as indicated in a notice appearing
later in this work. This electronic representation of RAND intellectual property is provided for non-
commercial use only. Unauthorized posting of RAND electronic documents to a non-RAND website is
prohibited. RAND electronic documents are protected under copyright law. Permission is required from
RAND to reproduce, or reuse in another form, any of our research documents for commercial use. For
information on reprint and linking permissions, please see RAND Permissions.
This report is part of the RAND Corporation research report series. RAND reports
present research findings and objective analysis that address the challenges facing the
public and private sectors. All RAND reports undergo rigorous peer review to ensure
high standards for research quality and objectivity.
CORPORATION
Soldier-Portable Battery Supply
Foreign Dependence and Policy Options
Richard Silberglitt, James T. Bartis, and Kyle Brady
Summary While batteries are crucial for
Key findings military operations, their development and manufacture
is primarily driven by the much greater civilian demand,
• The primary driver of battery development and manu-
especially for hand-held and portable electronic applica-
facture is civilian demand.
tions such as mobile phones, laptop computers, and,
• Most of the rechargeable batteries procured by the
most recently, tablet computers. For consumer electron-
Department of Defense are assembled from critical
components manufactured outside the United States, ics, rechargeable lithium-ion batteries now dominate
principally in Asia, where many consumer devices the market due to their ability to store large amounts of
containing such batteries are manufactured. energy per unit weight and per unit volume, as compared
• Research found that government and battery industry
to all other commercial options. Just as Asia is the source
representatives expressed concerns about the security
of manufacture of most consumer hand-held and portable
and surge capability of the soldier-portable battery
electronic applications, it is also the center of manufacture
supply chain, the potentially unmanageable cost of
for the associated batteries and battery components. This
establishing a U.S. production base, and the potential
incompatibility of commercial batteries with military applies to both consumer and military applications.
requirements. During this study, it quickly became clear from
• Unless the U.S. manufacturing base were to become discussions with government managers and researchers
competitive in the much larger market for consumer
and representatives of the battery industry that most of
devices, fully domestically produced batteries for
the rechargeable batteries procured by the Department of
military applications will remain expensive compared to
Defense (DoD) are assembled from critical components
those using cells produced in Asia.
manufactured outside the United States, principally in
• Policymakers must make their decisions based on the
Asia.
predicted future power needs of soldiers and the risks
associated with a foreign-dependent battery supply Both DoD and the Department of Energy (DOE)
chain balanced against other supply chain risks and the have active programs aimed at developing a production
costs of risk mitigation. base within the United States for rechargeable lithium-ion
batteries—the former for space-qualified applications and
improved soldier-portable batteries (SPBs) and the latter for electric and hybrid vehicles. However,
because of the much greater demand for batteries for consumer devices (billions per year as com-
pared to millions for military applications), a domestic manufacturer of SPBs will not benefit from
the economies of scale enjoyed by the Asian battery manufacturers. This will result in DoD paying a
premium, unless that manufacturer can also serve the consumer market.
2
Additionally, current policy is to use rechargeable batteries whenever practical and to procure such batteries from the
lowest-cost supplier that meets military specifications. Add the fact that the number of SPBs is anticipated to increase
significantly as the Army’s Brigade Combat Teams rely increasingly on wireless devices, and this situation gives rise
to concerns with respect to the security and surge capability of the SPB supply chain, the potentially unmanageable
cost of establishing a U.S. production base, and the potential incompatibility of commercial batteries with military
requirements.
In this report we outline three alternative policy options that address these concerns, in addition to the current policy:
1. Strengthen the Supply Chain: Develop and implement a logistics plan and infrastructure capable of delivering
a sufficient number of non-rechargeable batteries to forward-based operating units to replace rechargeable soldier-
portable batteries (RSPBs) in the event of a disruption within the supply chain; require all materials and compo-
nents to be obtained from secure sources; require a surge production capacity across the entire supply chain; or
establish a stockpile.
2. Strengthen the Nexus Between Soldier-Portable Research and Development (R&D) and Manufacturing:
Increase support to production-related R&D and/or increase coordination with participants in the DOE Vehicle
Battery Program.
3. Promote Domestic Production of RSPBs: Require DoD procurements to have all key components and advanced
materials be manufactured within the United States; provide investment or production subsidies to firms that
manufacture batteries with high domestic content; or incentivize domestic production using non-monetary mea-
sures, such as establishing technical specifications that promote the manufacture of advanced RSPBs.
4. Maintain the Current Policy: Continue to pursue the current policy of buying lowest-cost RSPBs that meet the
military specifications, but are assembled from commercial cells.
If DoD decides that it wants to take action concerning foreign dependence of the SPB supply chain, then the mini-
mum approach would be elements of Policy Option 1: Strengthen the Supply Chain. If DoD could establish a vendor
certification process and establish secure sources for all soldier-portable cell and battery components, as well as cell pro-
duction and battery assembly, whether in the United States or with its allies, it would have a reliable supply chain.
Policy Option 2, Strengthen the R&D-Manufacturing Nexus, also has potential benefits. It would leverage the
R&D investments of both DoD and DOE, and could lead to some U.S. production of RSPBs. However, unless the U.S.
manufacturing base were to become competitive in the much larger market for consumer devices, the fully domestically
produced batteries for military applications will remain expensive compared to those using cells produced in Asia.
The most direct approach to establishing a reliable soldier-portable battery supply chain would be Policy Option 3:
Promote Domestic Production. However, this would likely be the most expensive option. Its pursuit would likely also not
be based solely on defense concerns, because of the potential contribution of a strengthened domestic manufacturing base
to economic and employment goals.
The benefit of Policy Option 4, Maintain the Current Policy, is the current system’s low cost and the access it affords
to the constant market-driven innovation occurring in the private sector. The trade-off is that military equipment must
be either designed or adapted to use batteries assembled from cells that were manufactured with consumer applications in
mind. Maintaining this policy may be a viable option, considering the cost of the other three options and other demands
on DoD funds, including possible supply-chain problems with other critical military equipment. Cost-benefit analysis
of the first three policy options, versus doing nothing, requires both technical data and information on the feasibility of
supply arrangements that were unavailable to us, and was beyond the scope of this study.
3
During the study, it quickly became clear from discussions
IntrODuctIOn
with government managers and researchers and representatives
of the battery industry that most of the rechargeable batteries
For want of a nail the shoe was lost,
procured by the Department of Defense (DoD) are assembled
for want of a shoe the horse was lost;
from critical components manufactured outside the United
and for want of a horse the rider was lost;
States, principally in Asia. This strong dependence on manufac-
being overtaken and slain by the enemy,
ture within Asia then became the focus of the study. After col-
all for want of care about a horse-shoe nail.
lecting information on this dependence from available literature
Benjamin Franklin, 1758
and discussions with subject-matter experts in government and
Franklin’s proverb reminds us of the importance of detail in industry from the organizations listed below, we outlined three
military logistical planning. Obviously, horse-shoe nails are no possible new policy goals for increasing the security of the SPB
longer a major focus of military procurement; if Franklin were supply chain and drew up the broad outlines of policy options
writing today, however, he could reframe his proverb around aimed at achieving these goals. Our intention in this effort was
the importance of soldier-portable batteries (SPBs). Batteries not to recommend any particular policy, but rather to illumi-
enable radio communication among combat squad members nate the potential paths forward should DoD decide that the
and field headquarters. They provide the power to obtain current dependence on manufacture within Asia represents too
accurate location data essential for maneuver and combat air great a supply-chain risk and thus the current policy should be
support. Laser range finders and night-vision goggles are two changed.
more examples of battery-powered capabilities that give U.S.
troops battlefield superiority.
While batteries are crucial for military operations, their How this Study Was conducted
development and manufacture is primarily driven by the much The RAND research team began this study by reviewing the
greater civilian demand, especially for hand-held and portable literature covering current and emerging battery performance,
electronic applications such as mobile phones, laptop comput- applications, and suppliers. This literature review was fol-
ers, and, most recently, tablet computers (billions per year as lowed by interviews with government researchers and program
opposed to millions for military applications).1 For consumer managers involved in the research and development (R&D)
electronics, rechargeable lithium-ion batteries now dominate and acquisition of SPBs. The government organizations covered
the market due to their ability to store large amounts of energy span the R&D and acquisition organizations with primary
per unit weight and per unit volume, as compared to all other responsibility for SPBs, and include developers of advanced bat-
commercial options. Just as Asia is the source of manufacture of teries that might be adapted toward soldier-portable use. These
most consumer hand-held and portable electronic applications, meetings included representatives from the following offices:
it is also the center of manufacture for the associated batteries
and battery components. This applies to both consumer and • Army Research Laboratory
military applications. • Air Force Research Laboratory
In 2012, the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense • Office of Naval Research
for Research and Engineering asked the RAND National • Naval Research Laboratory
Defense Research Institute to examine the dependence of • Army Communications-Electronics Research, Develop-
the supply chain for current and emerging SPBs on capabili- ment, and Engineering Center
ties that currently are not or may not be available within the • Army Program Executive Office Soldier—Project Manager
United States or its allies. This supply chain begins with the raw Soldier Power
materials needed to produce battery components and covers the • Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Opera-
full spectrum of manufacturing required to assemble a finished tional Energy Plans and Programs
product meeting military specifications. Specifically outside • Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for
the scope of our study were the logistics issues associated with Manufacturing and Industrial Base Policy
delivering batteries to forward-based units and the management • U.S. Department of Energy, Vehicle Technologies Program
of batteries once they are received by such units.
4
• U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Electricity Delivery packaging that holds the cells, and the wiring and electronics
and Energy Reliability. that connect the cells and assure safe charge and discharge.
The cell is the basic working element of a battery; it is
For each of the above organizations, the representatives where chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
included the senior official responsible for and knowledgeable Each cell consists of a negative and a positive electrode. When
of battery development or acquisition issues. Most of the above operating (i.e., discharging), electrons flow from the negative
meetings were in-person, with an average duration of over two electrode, through an external circuit, to the positive electrode.
hours. The negative electrode is also called the anode, and the posi-
Additionally, RAND researchers held structured dis- tive electrode is called the cathode. Separating the anode and
cussions with representatives of several private-sector firms cathode within a cell is the electrolyte. The electrolyte is a liquid
involved in the development and/or manufacture of batteries or semi-porous solid through which ions can move between
for military applications. These firms taken together supply the the two electrodes during battery discharge and, in the case of
majority of batteries procured by DoD, and include developers secondary batteries, recharging.
of advanced battery designs and those among the top ten sup-
pliers of batteries to the Defense Logistics Agency (DLA):2
• Bren-Tronics OvervIeW OF SOlDIer-POrtable
• Dow Kokam batterIeS
• PolyPlus
SPBs are a subset of the larger military battery market, which
• Quallion
covers power storage for vehicles, weapon systems, and numer-
• SAFT America
ous specialty requirements. This variety in battery applica-
• Thales
tions leads to variety in the types of batteries that the military
• 3M
acquires; a battery cell designed to periodically provide small
• Ultralife
amounts of power to a flashlight is built differently than a
• Yardney.
large, one-shot cell inside a missile, which may lie dormant for
many years and then be expected to provide a large amount of
The representatives of the above firms were senior managers
power at a moment’s notice. The following sections provide a
responsible for battery development and/or sales to DoD. To
very brief overview of current and emerging SPBs. They do not,
facilitate frank and open discussion, the meetings with industry
and are not intended to, provide a comprehensive listing of the
representatives were held on a not-for-attribution basis. Most of
characteristics, properties, and costs of such batteries.
the industry discussions were by phone, with an average dura-
tion of over one hour.
the characteristics of Soldier-Portable
batteries
Definitions
DoD provides soldiers with both primary and secondary bat-
While this is not a technical report on batteries, we do need to
teries. In some cases, a soldier will carry both types. Primary
introduce a few technical terms. For example, we will discuss
batteries produced in the United States include the familiar
both single-use and rechargeable batteries. Following common
commercial alkaline cells commonly used to power flash-
practice, we designate single-use batteries as primary batteries.
lights, smoke alarms, and numerous devices within homes and
Once they are discharged, they must be discarded. Recharge-
businesses. Within the past few years, primary lithium metal
able batteries are generally referred to as secondary batteries.
batteries have become commercially available and are now used
In general, a battery is collection of cells. A conventional
in soldier-portable applications. All primary batteries store
automobile battery used for starting, lighting, and ignition, for
and recover energy by way of an irreversible chemical reaction.
example, generally contains six lead-acid cells. Some batteries
Once the reaction has been allowed to run to completion, the
consist of a single cell, which is the case for the familiar alka-
battery has no further value as an energy storage device.
line batteries (e.g., AAA through D cells). A multi-cell battery
basically consists of three components: the cells, the battery
5
Compared to secondary batteries with similar chemistries, its operating life, thereby eliminating the need to purchase,
primary batteries have the advantage of lower unit costs and store, and deliver many hundreds of primary lithium batteries.
higher specific energy—the amount of energy a battery is able For military efforts to streamline logistics and reduce waste,
to store per unit weight, measured in watt-hours per kilogram secondary batteries are clearly superior to primary batteries.
(Wh/kg). Because the chemical reaction used to generate the Current military thinking reflects this, and Army acquisition
power in a primary cell is not required to be reversible, battery policy explicitly states that rechargeable and reusable batteries
designers have more freedom to utilize materials and compo- will be used in new-fielded equipment unless this is “not
nent structures that allow them to increase the specific energy practical.” 4
of a cell or battery. This characteristic of primary batteries Currently, many primary and secondary batteries that are
appeals to the military, which has spent a great deal of effort used in military and commercial applications are made using
attempting to reduce the weight and volume of the batteries lithium. Lithium-based primary batteries are generally referred
that soldiers are required to carry.3 High specific energy is one to as “lithium metal” or simply “lithium” batteries. Lithium-
of the major reasons that primary batteries have previously been based secondary batteries are typically referred to as “lithium-
so widely used in military applications. ion” batteries.
Figure 1 shows the gravimetric energy densities (specific
energies) of current and emerging primary and secondary bat-
tery cells of the various chemistries that are currently used or Battery Performance Requirements
could be used in the future in SPBs. SPBs are often embedded within devices such as radios or
The major advantage of secondary batteries is that they night-vision goggles, and a soldier must carry sufficient spares
dramatically reduce the logistical burden of supplying batteries to replace or recharge these batteries as needed. If an embed-
to forward-based soldiers. A rechargeable lithium battery can ded battery is of the secondary type, it needs a source of energy
undergo more than a thousand charge/discharge cycles during from which to recharge. For most cases, this energy source will
Figure 1. a comparison of Gravimetric energy Densities for current and emerging battery cells
Zn Alkaline MnO2
LiSO2
LiMnO2
Primary batteries
LiFeS2
LiCFx (commercial)
Zn-Air
LiCFx (military)
Li-Air 3,400
NiCd (sealed)
Lead-Acid (SLI)
NiMH (commercial)
Secondary batteries
Zn-Air (electrically rechargeable)
Li-Ion
Zn-Air (mechanically rechargeable)
Li-Air 3,000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000
Gravimetric energy density (Wh/kg)
SOURCE: Thomas B. Reddy (ed.), Linden’s Handbook of Batteries, 4th ed., New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2011.
NOTES: Li-Air numbers are estimations, and should be regarded as unproven. The abbreviations appearing in this figure correspond to the
following elements: C (Carbon), Cd (Cadmium), F (Flourine), Fe (Iron), H (Hydrogen), Li (Lithium), Mn (Manganese), Ni (Nickel), O (Oxygen),
S (Sulfur), and Zn (Zinc). CFx and MH represent Carbon monoflouride and Metal-hydride, while O2 and S2 are referred to as “dioxide” and
“disulfide,” respectively. SLI stands for starting, lighting, ignition—the applications of automotive lead-acid batteries.
RAND RR500-1.1
6
energy that can be stored in a specified volume (often expressed
Because mission success as watt-hours per liter).
SPBs generally make use of the same types of chemistries
and soldiers’ lives as do commercial batteries, though they often emphasize
different characteristics of performance. In some commercial
often depend directly applications, lowering unit cost is the primary goal of battery
research. This is the case for the DOE-sponsored battery devel-
on a military battery’s
opment efforts in support of electric vehicles and for stationary
storage of electricity. For military purposes, however, battery
performance, the military
cost is secondary to dependability. Because mission success and
soldiers’ lives often depend directly on a military battery’s per-
is willing to pay somewhat
formance, the military is willing to pay somewhat higher prices
to ensure that its batteries will be effective in combat situations
higher prices to ensure
and rugged environments.
that its batteries will Military specifications for battery dimensions, capabilities,
safety, storability, and other characteristics are set to meet the
be effective in combat needs of particular weapons or support systems in many cases.
In others, a standardized performance specification established
situations and rugged by DoD can be used. For example, requirements for recharge-
able batteries used in many soldier-portable applications are
environments.
set forth for all DoD agencies in Military Performance Speci-
fication (MIL PRF) 32383, a list of requirements drawn from
specifications throughout government and industry.8
be a petroleum-powered generator located at the base camp.
In addition to requirements for characteristics of battery
Recharging equipment can also operate using military vehicles.
performance, requirements are established for battery surviv-
For certain operations, however, soldiers may be on extended
ability in harsh conditions. Among other qualities, SPBs must
missions without vehicular support. These soldiers need to be
be able to operate in both high and low temperature environ-
able to replace or recharge their embedded batteries with other
ments; MIL PRF 32383 specifies a range of -20°C (-4°F) to
batteries, increasing the load that they must carry.
50°C (122°F), though certain types of lithium cells may be sub-
There are non-battery solutions for collecting the power
ject to more stringent requirements. Because the rate at which
necessary to recharge an embedded battery. Portable solar
chemicals within a battery react is dependent on temperature,
photovoltaic panels,5 including those embedded in blankets,6
reactions proceed more quickly as temperature increases. This
have recently been fielded for the purpose of recharging SPBs.
means that, for military batteries, great care has to be taken to
Researchers are also investigating piezoelectric materials that
ensure that the power generated in a cold-weather environment
can be implanted in the soles of boots, where they generate
is sufficient to meet a soldier’s needs. The linkage of tempera-
power as soldiers walk.7 These solutions have not yet been
ture and rate of reaction also affects battery storage, as the slow
widely adopted, though, and using larger SPBs to recharge
self-discharge that affects all cells runs more quickly at high
smaller embedded batteries is still a standard practice.
temperatures. In the case of secondary batteries, high tempera-
Battery performance optimization is always application-
tures can also increase the rate at which a cell recharges.
dependent, and it involves balancing many different concerns
MIL PRF 32383 also mandates a number of tests to deter-
and characteristics. Although specific energy is one of the more
mine a potential military battery’s resistance to physical dam-
desirable characteristics of battery performance, it is only one
age. Because a battery is an energy storage device, by definition
part of the total package. The instantaneous power that the bat-
a good battery contains large amounts of energy in a confined
tery can provide per unit of weight (measured in watts per kilo-
space. Safety, therefore, is a paramount concern, and it must be
gram) is another crucial characteristic. The military also places
established that SPBs will fail gracefully, i.e., without damaging
a premium on a battery’s energy density, namely, the amount of
other components of an electrical system or posing a danger to
7
operators. Graceful failure must hold in the face of many dif- and is intermixed with copper in some variants of this chemis-
ferent types of possible abuse: Requirements cover the testing try.
necessary to establish the battery’s response to explosive decom- LiSO , lithium sulfur dioxide, batteries consist of a lithium
2
pression, submersion, thermal and mechanical shock, sand and metal anode and a liquid cathode. LiSO cells can be used over
2
dust storms, and numerous other environmental hazards that a a wide range of operating temperatures. Like LiFeS batter-
2
military battery might encounter during its service life. ies, they have low self-discharge rates allowing storage for long
periods of time. LiSO boasts a high energy capacity as well,
2
though it is designed to operate at higher voltages than LiFeS .
2
In some variants of this battery chemistry, the sulfur dioxide
current anD emerGInG SOlDIer- cathode is replaced with less costly manganese dioxide at the
POrtable batterIeS expense of some low-temperature performance.
SPBs are made up of a wide variety of different chemistries. An “air-breathing” battery structure has long been a goal
In addition to the lithium cells mentioned earlier, the military of the R&D community, and has great potential for use in
makes use of nickel-based cells, as well as air-breathing batteries military applications. The military has started to deploy a lim-
that pull oxygen from the outside air. In this section, we review ited number of batteries based on zinc-air chemistry. A Zn-air
some of the more common battery chemistries currently used to cell pulls oxygen from the air to use as a cathode reactant, and
power soldier-portable devices, as well as those emerging chem- has a porous zinc structure filled with electrolyte as its anode.
istries relevant for soldier-portable applications. This section is Because the cathode material is external to the cell, Zn-air
not a comprehensive review, but rather a brief description of batteries can be designed with high specific energy. Zn-air cells
those chemistries discussed in the interviews we conducted. can also be stored for a very long period of time, so long as they
are completely sealed. Once air is allowed in, however, they
self-discharge very quickly.
Primary batteries
The military maintains a supply of primary batteries, many of
which make use of lithium chemistries. Lithium primary cells Secondary batteries
are those that use lithium or lithium compounds to form their Li-ion rechargeable batteries have been the focus of consider-
anodes. The cathode can be formed from any of a number of able military and commercial energy storage research, and are
different materials, two of the most common structures cur- well entrenched in soldier-portable applications. As a military
rently in use being FeS and SO . acquisition, Li-ion batteries have the distinct advantage of being
2 2
LiFeS , lithium iron disulfide, is a commercial “workhorse” heavily used in the consumer market, developments in which
2
battery. A single LiFeS cell is made up of a lithium anode, an can be leveraged by the military. Li-ion batteries are now the
2
iron disulfide cathode, and separator material between them. most popular batteries used in laptops, cell phones, and other
LiFeS cells are designed to provide their power at a lower volt- electronics. Li-ion batteries boast high gravimetric energy den-
2
age than many other lithium cells, operating at 1.5V as opposed sity, operating between approximately 100 and 200 Wh/kg,11
to the more common 3V. This allows them to be easily substi- and a low self-discharge rate compared to other rechargeable
tuted for the 1.5V alkaline batteries commonly used in personal batteries. These advantages are reduced, however, when a Li-ion
electronics, with which they are meant to compete. Because of battery is used in high-temperature environments or is forced to
their much greater specific energy (Energizer advertises a value generate large currents for extended periods of time.
of 297 Wh/kg for their AA-size cell9), LiFeS cells can be made Two nickel-based chemistries are also used in rechargeable
2
about one-third lighter than their alkaline competitors or yield batteries: nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) and nickel-cadmium
greater energy at roughly the same weight and volume. More- (NiCd). Both chemistries involve positive electrodes made of
over, they can be stored for much longer due to their lower NiOOH (nickel oxyhydroxide) but differ in the materials used
self-discharge rate. LiFeS cells excel in applications requiring in their negative electrodes. NiMH has largely replaced NiCd
2
high electric current loads. Motor-driven tools, high-current because of its much greater specific energy and lower toxicity.12
electronics, and similar devices are all common applications for NiMH batteries are competitive with Li-ion technology in
LiFeS batteries.10 The iron disulfate cathode material is cheap, some applications, and can match the lower end of the Li-ion
2
8
battery spectrum in specific energy. When compared to Li-ion reaction at the cell’s positive terminal, and the negative termi-
technology in other respects, though, NiMH batteries have sev- nal is made of lithium or a lithium compound. There are many
eral disadvantages. For example, their high self-discharge rate different groups trying to make this type of battery feasible
keeps them from being stored for any length of time without using a wide variety of different structures, some of which
needing to be recharged. Battery structures with lower self-dis- claim to have Li-air primary cells approaching commercializa-
charge have been introduced, but generally have lower capacity tion. One of these organizations, the Berkeley-based battery
than standard varieties.13 research firm PolyPlus, has reported the successful test of a cell
with specific energy in excess of 700 Wh/kg.18
Thus far, efforts to create a Li-air secondary battery have
emerging battery chemistries run into many of the same roadblocks that keep secondary
Lithium carbon monofluoride (LiCFx) is an emerging chemis- Zn-air cells from becoming practical, such as the formation
try for primary batteries. The LiCFx chemistry’s theoretical spe- of lithium dendrites and the high cost of separator materials
cific energy is much higher than that of either LiFeS or LiSO , designed to prevent short circuits from forming. The problems
2 2
for which it is a potential replacement.14 On an open circuit, it are being addressed by a number of research organizations,
operates reliably and safely at around 3.2 to 3.7 volts. LiCFx all of which are motivated by the possibility of developing a
batteries are currently in production and commercial service, secondary battery with a very high specific energy and energy
and were estimated to account for about 9 percent of the 2009 density.19
world battery market, with Panasonic producing 50 percent of
LiCFx batteries worldwide as of that year.15 The market is cur-
rently dominated by small button cells, because of the expense Government research and Development on
of the CFx cathode. However, hybrid cells with a less-expensive Soldier-Portable batteries
cathode incorporating MnO have been developed that demon- The federal government takes an active role in the develop-
2
strate improved performance as compared to standard D cells.16 ment of energy storage technologies, both through traditional
Active development programs on LiCFx primary batteries research funding for basic science and through technology
aimed at military applications are underway at several battery development programs. Much of this R&D is relevant to cur-
manufacturers in the United States and abroad.17 rent and emerging SPBs. The discussion below is based on a
Lithium-air (Li-air) is another possible next-generation bat- report by the GAO in August 2012, which identified 39 major
tery chemistry. Li-air cells utilize many of the same principles federal battery-related R&D projects that had received $1.3 bil-
as do current Zn-air cells. Oxygen from the air is used in the lion in funding between 2009 and 2012.20 DoD obligated $430
million in 14 different projects, while the DOE obligated $852
million in 11. NASA and a few other organizations also under-
took research, though at much smaller overall funding levels.
The federal government
The majority of the DOE’s programs were focused on basic
research and on applications that are only tangentially related
takes an active role in the
to SPBs. However, advances in battery chemistry and materials
made in these programs could be transferable to soldier-porta-
development of energy
ble applications. Over a third of the money that DOE spread
among its 11 projects went toward the Vehicle Technologies
storage technologies,
Energy Storage Research and Development Initiative, which
both through traditional was designed to improve the competitiveness of electric vehicles
in the automotive market.21 This broad goal involved funding
research funding . . . for exploratory materials research; applied battery research; bat-
tery development; and testing, analysis, and design. A number
and through technology of companies received awards to develop high–specific-energy
cells and cell components, as well as materials that could be
development programs.
incorporated into next-generation cells.22