Table Of Content

Iraqi Resistance to Freedom: A Frommian Perspective CYNTHIA E. AYERS I raqiciviliansweredancingandsinginginthestreetsofBaghdadonthemorning of9April2003,whiletheAmericanmilitaryconsolidatedeffortstosecurethe city.OnthatdayitwasobviousthatSaddamHusseinhadbeendeposed.Inspiteof thecelebrations,however,coalitionsoldierscontinuedtomeetopposition. BythentheworldcouldclearlyseethatatleastsomeIraqiswerehappy tobefreeandeagertoexpresstheirjoyatthefalloftheregime.Butmanywithin thecoalitionweresurprisedthatthesefeelingshadnotbeenexpressedthrough- out the preceding weeks of Operation Iraqi Freedom.1 US forces moving north acrossIraqtowardBaghdadhadbeen“greeted[bycivilians]withviolenthostil- ityinsomecities,flatindifferenceinothers,and[onlylater]insomeplaces,with openarms.”2 InthedaysthatfollowedtheinitialcelebrationsinBaghdad,mediaatten- tion was drawn to Iraqis protesting the American presence as well as those who welcomed the coalition soldiers. A CNN special entitled “Inside the Regime” highlighted Iraqis who worked at, yet lived in poverty next to, the billion-dollar palacesoftheirformerleader.3Eventhosewithfirsthandknowledgeoftheluxuri- ouslifeledbyHusseinandhisfamilyremainedskepticalofthebenefitsoflibera- tion. They wondered if the “security” of the regime was not better than the “lawlessness”oftheirpost-Saddamworld.Theywantedwater,electricity,andan endtorampantcriminalactivity—andmostofall,itseemed,theywantedAmeri- canstoleavetheircountry.4 WhywereIraqicitizens—many,ifnotmost,ofwhomwerecognizantof the regime’s atrocities—so reticent to welcome freedom as the coalition forces succeededinliberatingcitiesandvillages?Fear,accordingtoleadingIraqiexiles, wasthemostprobablereason,5fearofhavingtofacetheangeroftheregimeshould the Americans not succeed. Fear of immediate reprisal also played a part. Iraqi POWs told stories of being forced to fight advancing American troops while re- 68 Parameters Report Documentation Page Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for the collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to a penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number. 1. REPORT DATE 3. DATES COVERED 2003 2. REPORT TYPE 00-00-2003 to 00-00-2003 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER Iraqi Resistance to Freedom: A Frommian Perspective 5b. GRANT NUMBER 5c. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER 6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. PROJECT NUMBER 5e. TASK NUMBER 5f. WORK UNIT NUMBER 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION U.S. Army War College,122 Forbes Avenue,Carlisle,PA,17013-5244 REPORT NUMBER 9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSOR/MONITOR’S ACRONYM(S) 11. SPONSOR/MONITOR’S REPORT NUMBER(S) 12. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT Approved for public release; distribution unlimited 13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES Parameters, US Army War College Quarterly, Spring 2003, Vol 33, No. 3 14. ABSTRACT 15. SUBJECT TERMS 16. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF: 17. LIMITATION OF 18. NUMBER 19a. NAME OF ABSTRACT OF PAGES RESPONSIBLE PERSON a. REPORT b. ABSTRACT c. THIS PAGE Same as 17 unclassified unclassified unclassified Report (SAR) Standard Form 298 (Rev. 8-98) Prescribed by ANSI Std Z39-18 gimeelementsand“SaddamFedayeen”heldgunstotheirheadsandthreatenedthe safetyoftheirfamilies.6ReportsfromwoundedIraqiPOWs,inspectionsofIraqis whohadbeenkilled“inbattle,”andliveCNNcoverageofrefugeesbeingfiredat byIraqisoldiersastheyattemptedtofleethecitieslendcredibilitytotheseasser- tions.Fear,successfulIraqipropaganda,andageneraldisbeliefincoalitioncapa- bilitytotoppletheregimeandoustSaddammayhavekeptmanyfromdaringto hopeforfreedom. These are all valid assertions, but they do not completely explain the willingnessofsomeIraqimilitaryelementstocontinuetofight,evenwhenthey musthaveknowntherewasnohopeforthesurvivaloftheregime.Nordothey explaintheenthusiasmdisplayedbyArabvolunteersfromothercountriesinde- claringtheirintenttoenterIraqandfightforaregimethatwasknownthrough- out the Arab world as abusive and cruel.7 Were they simply responding to the Arab community’s dislike of American intervention and Osama bin Laden’s call for recruits to the jihad?8 And how could the more moderate states of the ArabcommunityclaimtofindSaddam’sgovernmentdistastefulandmurderous, yetpublicizethewarasan“imperialAmericaninvasion”andtreatSaddamand his henchmen as if they were “champions” and potential martyrs?9 Why, when peoplearefacedwithachoicebetweenpernicious,seeminglyall-powerfuldicta- torships and liberty, would they fight to retain systems of oppression? Why wouldtherebeanyquestionoverthedesirabilityoffreedom? Santayana’sfamouswarning(“thosewhocannotrememberthepastare condemnedtorepeatit”)mayhavebeenconsideredbywarplannersinseekingto predictIraqireactionstoaliberatingforce,butthelessonstobelearnedinthis caseshouldnotbelimitedtothosegleanedonlyfromconflictbetweenWestern elementsandthecountryofIraq,orevenfromEast-Westculturaldifferences.In September2002,agroupofIraqiexilesboldlyimplied10acomparisonbetween Saddam’sregimeandNaziGermany.11Certainly,Pan-Arabismisaformoffas- cism and Saddam shared many qualities with Hitler—the two even had similar experiences in their formative years. If the comparison between the two rulers andregimesisindeedvalid,perhapstheanswersweseekcanbefoundinananal- ysisoffascisttendenciesinearly20th-centuryEurope. Fear of Freedom: Submission and Conformity German-born social psychoanalyst and philosopher Erich Fromm reported a phenomenon he called “fear of freedom” over 60 years ago. When Frommpublishedhistheory(EscapefromFreedom,1941),12hewaslivingand CynthiaE.AyersistheNationalSecurityAgency’sVisitingProfessorofInforma- tionSuperiorityattheUSArmyWarCollege.ShehasB.S.andM.P.A.degreesfromTroy StateUniversityandiscurrentlyworkingonaPh.D.fromWaldenUniversityincriminal justice,focusingoncounterterrorism. Autumn2003 69 writingintheUnitedStates,whereEuropeanfascismwasapredominantthought onthemindsofmany.ThosewhofoughtforfreedominWorldWarIwereun- doubtedlyfrustratedbywhatseemedtobeaEuropeanreadinesstosuccumbto authoritarianregimes. In analyzing socioeconomic and sociopolitical problems of Europe duringtheemergenceoffascism,Frommcametotheconclusionthatindividu- als,andthereforesocieties,haveaninnatetendencytoreverttosystemsofpoliti- cal and cultural restraint rather than to take advantage of opportunities for freedomoremancipation—andthattheymayactuallyseekoutgovernmentsto controlthemratherthanfacetheprospectofindividualfreedom.Fromm’sexpla- nationforthistypeofreversionwasseeninthefollowingassertion: If the economic, social, and political conditions on which the whole process of human individuation13 depends, do not offer a basis for the realization of indi- viduality...[and]peoplehavelostthosetieswhichgavethemsecurity,thislag makesfreedomanunbearableburden.Itthenbecomesidenticalwithdoubt,witha kindoflifethatlacksmeaninganddirection.Powerfultendenciesarisetoescape fromthiskindoffreedomintosubmissionorsomekindofrelationshiptomanand theworldwhichpromisesrelieffromuncertainty,evenifitdeprivestheindividual ofhisfreedom.14 ThebasisofFromm’stheorywashisbeliefthatsocieties,likeindividu- als, progress through a series of feelings of security and insecurity during the process of growing. He likened an individual’s dependence upon the society to whichheorshewasborntothatofachild’sdependenceuponitsmother.Thesede- pendenciesaregraduallylost,or“theprimarytiesarecut”15asindependenceand freedomissought.However,evenasthedesireforfreedomencouragesthissepa- ration, feelings of alienation, weakness, and insecurity are growing simulta- neously.16Itisatthispoint,Frommbelieved,thattheindividualformsafearofthe freedomthatissodesired. Duringtheprocessofgrowingandestablishingfreedomfromthetiesof initial dependence, attempts are made “to overcome the feeling[s] of aloneness andpowerlessnessbycompletelysubmergingoneselfintheworldoutside.”17If, however,theindividualencounterssuppressionoroppression,theeffectiveresult issubmissionandfearoftheprocessofachievingindividualityandfreedom. Expanding on this assertion, Fromm maintained that the extent to whichanindividualdevelops(orindividuationoccurs)islargelydependentonthe typeofeconomicandsocialstructuretowhichtheindividualwasborn.Behavior consistentwithself-preservationwithinanindividual’seconomicsystemorsociety explains the determination of an individual’s character structure, which, in turn, substantiates and magnifies the character structure of the society, according to Fromm.18Inthiscircuitousmanner,anexplanationwasproposedforsocietieswitha seemingly predisposed willingness to submit to forms of authoritarian rule as op- posedtothosesocietieswithamuchmoresubstantialresistance. 70 Parameters “Why were Iraqi citizens . . . so reticent to welcome freedom as the coalition forces succeeded in liberating cities and villages?” Frommstressedtheneedforanindividualtobeapartofalargerwholeas afactorintheformationofsocietalcharacter.Thisneed,accordingtoFromm,isa formofmentalself-preservation,similartothebasicneedforsustenance.“Even being related to the basest kind of pattern is immensely preferable to being alone.”19 Thus, as people gain a measured sense of individualism and freedom, theyarepushedbyanuncontrollabledrivetojoinwithothers,therebyobtaining securityinsociety,evenattheexpenseofindividualfreedom.Thiswas,according toFromm,“thenegativesideoffreedom”(or“negativefreedom”).20 Includedintheconceptofnegativefreedomwasthesocietalconstraint ofconformity.Conformityencompassesalloftheconsciousandself-conscious actionsandfeelingsexperiencedinthespiritofsocialassimilation.Thefearof beingunique,ofthinkingoractingdifferently,ofstandingoutinacrowd,canbe adebilitatingfear—especiallywhen“standingout”mightmeantortureordeath ofselforloved-ones. Forconformityandsubmissiontoexistwithinasociety,theremustbea correspondingneedtofindsecurityinauthorityandpower.Forexample,author- ityandpowermightbedeterminedbyownershipoflandandwealthorbytheac- cumulationofbusinessorpoliticalstrength.Thosewithoutlandgainsecurityby belonging to groups, organizations, or cultures, and may obtain a feeling of powerbydiscriminatingoroppressingothergroups,organizations,orcultures. Those with land act in a manner that displays superiority to those without, but mayfeelinferiorinregardtothosewithmonetarywealth.Thecash-richmay,in turn, feel inferior when compared to a high-level business executive, who may feellessthanadequatewhenconfrontedwithpoliticalpower.Thefeelingofsu- periority over other persons or groups becomes the ultimate objective in the searchforthesecuritythatisfoundinpower.Limitationsonpoweraredependent onsocietalcharacterstructure,whichis(aspreviouslynoted)determinedbybe- haviorconsistentwithself-preservationwithinthesocio-economicsystem. Frommbelievedthatpeopleliveinbipolarsocieties.Hischaracteriza- tionsoftheindividualswithinasocietymightbeanthropomorphicallyascribed to sheep and wolves, with the wolves lined up on a spectrum of power lust or madness,fromacategoryofgoodtobad.Sheepcouldbeclassifiedincategories fromacquiescenttowilling.All(sheepandwolves),accordingtoFromm’sthe- Autumn2003 71 ory,aremotivatedbyfeelingsofinsecurity,alienation,powerlessness,isolation, andfear.21Fromm’scontentionwasthat: In any society the spirit of the whole culture is determined by the spirit of those groupsthataremostpowerfulinthatsociety...partlybecausethesegroupshave the power to control the educational system, schools, church, press, theater, and thereby to imbue the whole population with their own ideas; furthermore, these powerfulgroupscarrysomuchprestigethatthelowerclassesaremorethanready toacceptandimitatetheirvaluesandtoidentifythemselvespsychologically.22 Frommpicturedthemasses(thesheep)asbeingoverwhelmedbypowerfulpro- paganda(initiatedbythewolves),whichservestoincreasethefeelingofinsig- nificanceandpowerlessness,andincreasetheirwillingnesstosubmit.23 Indiscussingwhatheconsideredtobean“escape”intosubmissionto anauthoritariantypeofleadership,Frommdescribedtheindividualasexhibiting masochistictendencies—anunconsciousneedtoactinamannerthatinvitesex- ternalcontrol.24Hedepictedthesadistictendenciesofanauthoritarianleaderas stemmingfromthesameescapistfeelings.Hepostulatedthatthesadisticleader wasattemptingtogainstrengthandidentitybycreatinganimageofbeingbound toagreaterwhole,suchasthatofthestate.Contrarytopopularbelief,thesadist andthemasochist,accordingtoFromm,havethesamecharacterstructure.Both existinasymbioticrelationshipthatguaranteesescapefromfreedom—because freedomelicitsfeelingsofalienationandpowerlessness.25 Frommportrayedfascismasaperfectexampleofthesadomasochistic symbioticrelationshipthatcouldbeexhibitedintheentirecharacterstructureof a society. He declared that there were “great parts of the lower middle class in GermanyandotherEuropeancountries[inwhich]thesadomasochisticcharacter istypical.”26Thistypeofsociety,accordingtoFromm,hasastrongdesiretosub- mittoanoverwhelminglystrongauthority,whilesimultaneouslyneedingtobe seenandtreatedasanauthorityfigureamongothersocialgroups,thussustaining ahierarchyofpower.27 AdolfHitlerwasseenbyFrommastheembodimentofthesadomaso- chistic authoritarian.28 Fromm described how Hitler understood and used the need for security and the desire to escape from freedom via submission to a higherauthority.HerecognizedHitler’suseofthedomineeringstyleoforatory as well as the brainwashing techniques that are now known to be used in con- junction with fear, physical exhaustion, alienation, subsequent group assimila- tion,andtheformationofasocialstructureinwhichgroupsuperiorityoveroth- ersisemphasized. ThereisnodoubtthatSaddamHusseinandhis“power-elite”usedthese techniques with the Iraqi people29 (although perhaps with less sophistication). FrommwouldhavehadnocompunctionindescribingHusseinasa“sadomasochistic authoritarian” on a par with Hitler. Nor would Fromm have had any trouble depicting the Iraqi people as sheepishly submissive and compliant (to 72 Parameters their wolfish authoritarian leader)—but equally sadomasochistic in their will- ingnesstoconformtoasocialhierarchyinwhichfeelingsofsuperiorityoveroth- ers(suchastheKurdishminorityinternallyorAmericansandIsraelisexternally) wereencouraged.30 Fear of Freedom: Destroying That Which Is Feared AccordingtoFromm,feelingsofalienation,isolation,andpowerless- nesscanalsoresultindestructiveness.31InIraq,thisdestructivenessiscurrent- ly presented as opposition to those who have upset the status quo—those who liberatedtheIraqipopulationfromthesecurityofamore-or-lessconstant(how- everoppressive)lifestyle.Theseliberatorsalsoupsetthehierarchyofsuperior- ity—thus increasing feelings of powerlessness. The tendency to resort to destructiveness in order to alleviate unsavory insecure (or “unbearable”) feel- ingsisirrational,canbeobsessive,andmayultimatelyresultinadesirefortotal annihilation.32 Frommdescribedthissimplyinthestatement,“Icanescapethefeeling ofmyownpowerlessnessincomparisonwiththeworldoutsideofmyselfbyde- stroying it.”33 After World War II, many imprisoned Nazi officers reported that Hitler’s destructive behavior caused him to pursue targets (regardless of com- monsense,humandecency,andreason)whenGermanmilitarymightwasnotyet uptothetaskandthat“success”reinforcedhisbeliefinhisownsuperiorityover thegeneralstaff.34Thissamebehaviorkepthimfromobtainingcorrectinforma- tion in reference to military matters, since the generals who reported to him fearedfortheircareers(andoften,theirlives)ifHitlerdidnotreceivetheinfor- mation he wanted to hear. In August 1945, German prisoner of war General LemelsennotedthatHitler“neverclearlyrecognizedthatGermanyalonewould eventually...havetosuccumbtothesuperiorityofitsenemiesandthathedid not seek means when this became apparent to end the war, but rather delivered thepeopletocompletedestruction.”35 TheactionsofanddecisionsmadebySaddamHusseinbeforeanddur- ingOperationsDesertStormandIraqiFreedomwereeerilyreminiscentofthere- portsprovidedbyHitler’sofficers.AlthoughtheIraqimilitarywaswell-armed, Saddam obviously had been misinformed about his military’s effectiveness in battle.Thecold-bloodedkillingofSaddam’ssons-in-law—Lieutenant-General HussainKamelal-Majidandhisbrother,Lieutenant-ColonelSaddamKamel— aftertheirreturnfromdefectioninFebruary199636aswellaspurgesinstitutedby Saddam after his assumption of control in 197937 provide testimony of the fear thatwasnodoubtfeltbybothmilitaryandcivilianleaders.Reportedly,longbe- forehetookcontrolofIraq,Saddam’sworldwascharacterizedbyanobsessively destructivenature.Hisearlychildhoodofpoverty,abuse,andneglectundoubt- edly aroused feelings of alienation, isolation, and powerlessness, which were magnifiedbythecultureinwhichhelived.Thesecircumstancesmayhavebeena catalystfortheruthlessbehaviorhedisplayedinadulthood38aswellasthedeliv- Autumn2003 73 eryofhisownpeopletowhatmusthaveappearedtothemtobecertaindestruc- tion (just as Hitler had done). The intelligence organizations of the coalition obviously had this destructive tendency in mind while planning for Operation Iraqi Freedom’s “race to Baghdad.”39 If Saddam did (as it was believed) have readilyavailableweaponsofmassdestruction,theuseofsuchwouldhavebeen inkeepingwithSaddam’scharacterprofile(asproposedbyFromm). Fromm delineated a particular type of destructiveness—a pernicious formofcontinual,subdued,ferventhostilitythat“waitsonlyforanopportunityto be expressed”40—that could be equated to terrorism.41 This, Fromm believed, evolvesfromalackofindividualempowerment,theinabilityofanindividualto express self, and the absence of positive freedom.42 Fromm referred to it as a “thwartingoflife.”43Hitler’sNazipartymanipulatedandusedthistypeofdestruc- tivebehaviortofurtheritsaims.InutilizingIraqipeopleassuicidebombersand front-linemartyrstohisowncause,Saddamalsowasguiltyofthispractice. This“thwartingoflife”maybethebiggestchallengetothenewIraqi government(temporaryorpermanent).AveragecitizensofIraqhavebeenwith- outasenseofindividualempowermentformostifnotalloftheirlives.44Their newly found freedom will give them opportunities to express their destructive tendencies born as a consequence of severe oppression. Ironically, as Fromm noted,thedestructionmostlikelywillbeaimedatthosewhoofferfreedom—the freedomwhichbringswithitfeelingsofinsecurityandpowerlessness,thefree- domofnotknowingwhattodoorwhentodoit—fueledbyresentmentofanew structurethatdoesnotpossessthepowertoinstilltheleveloffearthatthepopu- loushadlivedwithformanyyears. Fear of Freedom: Destroying “Self” Frommalsodiscussedaformofmentalself-destruction.Henotedthat anillusoryresultofthehuntforescapefromalonenessandanxietywasthedele- tion,orataminimum,astrongsuppressionofone’srealselfandthesubsequent replacementwithwhathecalleda“pseudoself.”45Thispseudoselforsuperficial selfeasesintothesecurityofconformity,submission,andidentitywitha“larger whole.” Fromm argued that conformity and submission of the pseudo self was evidentinthe“partofthe[European]population[that]bowedtotheNaziregime without any strong resistance, but also without becoming admirers of the Nazi ideologyandpoliticalpractice.”46Thissubsetwasmadeup“oftheworkingclass andtheliberal...bourgeoisie.”47Thesegroups,whileinitiallyhostiletotheNazi party, collectively dropped their resistance in the interests of hiding within the securityfoundinconformityandsubmission.Frommciteda“stateofinnertired- nessandresignation.”48 FrommnotedthatinGermanyduringthe1930s,theworkingclassde- veloped a strong “feeling of resignation, of disbelief in their leaders, of doubt aboutthevalueofanykindofpoliticalorganizationandactivity....Deepwithin themselves many had given up any hope in the effectiveness of political ac- 74 Parameters “Average citizens of Iraq have been without a sense of individual empowerment for most if not all of their lives.” tion.”49Thustheysuppressedordestroyedtheirquestioning,rebellious,hopeful selves. It is, perhaps, this feeling of doubt and hopelessness—and the condi- tionedsuppressionofself—thatkeepsmuchoftheIraqipeoplefromembracing theirliberators.Intheirminds,tradingconformityandsubmissionfromoneform ofleadership(withwhichtheyarefamiliar)toanother(withwhichtheyhaveno frameofreference)mayhaveanassociatedcostthattheyarenotwilling,ordo not have the energy and enthusiasm (or the remaining sense of “self”), to pay. Therefore,itbecomesamatterof“betterthedevilyouknow”—andinthiscase, thedevilisanauthoritarianregime. Butresignationtoadevilisonething—activelyfightingforhimisan- other. Fromm observed that an interesting psychological aspect of the suppres- sion of self is the individual’s transference of identity to a larger whole (also noted in Orwell’s 1984).50 Although working-class members of Hitler’s Ger- many did not self-identify with the Nazi image, they did identify strongly with theircountry.HitlerandtheNazipartyvirtuallybecameGermany:51 ItcanbeobservedinmanyinstancesthatpersonswhoarenotNazisnevertheless defendNazismagainstcriticismofforeignersbecausetheyfeelthatanattackon NazisisanattackonGermany....Thisconsiderationresultsinanaxiomwhichis importantfortheproblemsofpoliticalpropaganda:anyattackonGermanyassuch, anydefamatorypropagandaconcerning“theGermans”...onlyincreasestheloy- altyofthosewhoarenotwhollyidentifiedwiththeNazisystem.52 ConsistentwiththismindsetisthesupportthatSaddamHusseinreceivedfromthe Arab media and community at large,53 as well as from many of the Iraqi people. TheyapparentlydidnotseeOperationIraqiFreedomasanattempttoliberateIraq andtheMiddleEastofacruel,inhumandictator—theybelievedthatAmericawas launchinganunprovokedattackagainstIraq,theIraqipeople,andtherefore,the “Arabnation.”54AnattackagainstSaddamwasanattackagainsttheentireArab community.Saddam(orSaddam’sregime)wasthereforeabletogainpsychologi- calsupportandregime-sustainingstrengthinaunifyingeffectresultingfromthe focusonacommonenmity.55 AscombattroopsracedthroughIraq,mostovertanti-leadershipsenti- mentwasnotedonlyafteranotablyconspicuousabsence,desertion,ordemiseof Autumn2003 75 regimeleaders.Similarly,generaldislikeforHitlerandtheNaziregimebecame evidentonlyafterthewarwaslostandHitlerhadcommittedsuicide.56Although thereticenceoftheoppressedtodisplaydistastefortheoppressorsisobviously influenced by fear of torture or death, it also can be explained as an attempt by thosewhohavelosttheirconceptofselftogainsecuritybybeingpartofalarger whole—an attempt at unity via nationalism or, in this case, Pan-Arabism and commonenmity.57 Fear of Freedom: Survival of the Fittest Characteristicoftheauthoritariansadomasochist,Hitlerbeganhiscru- sade on the heels of and surrounded by those he considered inferior,58 as did SaddamHussein.59Theachievementofultimatepowerwastheirdrivingforce. Thisquestforworlddominationwas,toHitler,justifiedastheultimaterealiza- tionofDarwin’stheoryofsurvivalofthestrongovertheweak: Theloveforthepowerfulandthehatredforthepowerlesswhichissotypicalforthe sado-masochisticcharacterexplainsagreatdealofHitler’sandhisfollowers’political actions. While the [Weimar] Republican government thought they could “appease”theNazisbytreatingthemleniently,theynotonlyfailedtoappeasethem butarousedtheirhatredbytheverylackofpowerandfirmnesstheyshowed.Hitler hatedtheWeimarRepublicbecause[italicsadded]itwasweak,andheadmiredthe industrial and military leaders because they had power. He never fought against establishedstrongpowerbutalwaysagainstgroupswhichhethoughttobeessen- tially powerless. Hitler’s—and for that matter Mussolini’s—“revolution” hap- penedunderprotectionofexistingpower,andtheirfavoriteobjectswerethosewho couldnotdefendthemselves.60 In other words, fascist power (like the proverbial wolf in sheep’s clothing) has historicallybeenaidedandabetted(albeitunconsciously)bytheweakergovern- ment it eventually replaced. One can see parallels in Saddam’s rise to power. ManywhosupportedhimlongbeforeheassumedcontrolofIraq(whenheousted a man of “close family connections” and placed him under house arrest) were laterexecuted.61 ThemannerinwhichbothMussoliniandHitlerfellfrompower(inthe mindsofthosewhowereruledbythem)wasconsistentwithFromm’sdepiction ofamutualsadomasochisticrelationshipbetweentheoppressedandtheoppres- sor.InFromm’sdescriptionsoftheauthoritariancharacter,onecouldextrapolate atendencyoftotalitariansocietiestoimplode.Thesadomasochisticpersonality sees“lackofpower...[as]anunmistakablesignofguiltandinferiority,andif theauthority...showssignsofweakness,hisloveandrespectchangeintocon- temptandhatred.”62Thus,FrommexplainedthebasisofMussolini’sfateatthe handsofhisfollowersin1945,Hitler’sproblemswithhistrustedelitetowardthe endofthewar—andthetopplingofstatuesaswellastheplethoraofshoesslap- pingthefaceofanyaccessibleimageofSaddamHusseinin2003. 76 Parameters