Drinking water disinfection techniques

270 Pages·2013·3.64 MB·English

by  Aniruddha Bhalchandra Pandit, Jyoti Kishen Kumar

D W
rinking ater
D
isinfection
t
echniques
Aniruddha Bhalchandra Pandit
and Jyoti Kishen Kumar
Boca Raton London New York
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Version Date: 20121003
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To my father
Professor Bhalchandra R. Pandit (alias Nana)
Aniruddha Bhalchandra Pandit (alias Vishwesh)
To my beloved parents
Smt. Lakshmi and Shri. P.A. Gopalkrishnan (Amma and Appa)
Jyoti Kishen Kumar

Contents
Foreword ..............................................................................................................xiii
Preface .....................................................................................................................xv
Acknowledgments .............................................................................................xvii
1. Introduction .....................................................................................................1
1.1 Current Scenario ...................................................................................1
1.2 The Aquatic Environment ...................................................................2
1.3 Health Aspects ......................................................................................3
1.4 History of Disinfection .........................................................................5
1.5 General Aspects of Disinfection .........................................................7
1.6 Water Disinfection Methods................................................................9
1.7 Assessment of Disinfection ...............................................................10
1.8 Quantitative Measurement of Bacterial Growth ............................13
1.9 History of Water Regulations ............................................................17
1.10 Microbiological Standards .................................................................18
Questions ........................................................................................................19
References .......................................................................................................19
2. Chemical Disinfection .................................................................................21
2.1 Introduction .........................................................................................21
2.2 Theory of Chemical Disinfection ......................................................21
2.3 Chlorination .........................................................................................23
2.3.1 Breakpoint Chlorination .......................................................24
2.3.2 How Does Chlorine Kill Microorganisms? ........................25
2.3.3 Factors Affecting Chlorine Disinfection ............................26
2.3.3.1 Concentration and Contact Time .........................27
2.3.4 Methods of Chlorine Treatment ..........................................27
2.3.4.1 Sodium Hypochlorite (Bleach) .............................27
2.3.4.2 Calcium Hypochlorite (Bleaching Powder
or Chlorinated Lime) .............................................27
2.3.4.3 Chloramines ............................................................28
2.3.4.4 Chlorine Dioxide ....................................................29
2.4 Other Chemical Methods ...................................................................33
2.4.1 Iodine .......................................................................................33
2.4.2 Silver ........................................................................................36
2.4.3 Potassium Permanganate .....................................................38
2.4.4 Hydrogen Peroxide ................................................................39
2.4.4.1 Production and Application .................................39
2.4.5 Bromine ...................................................................................40
2.4.6 Ferrate ......................................................................................41
vii
viii Contents
2.4.7 Water Disinfection by Zero-Valent Iron Nanoparticles ...42
2.5 Chemical Disinfection Treatments Requiring Electricity .............44
2.5.1 Ozone .......................................................................................44
2.6 Coagulation/Flocculation Agents as Pretreatment .......................45
2.7 Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) ......................................................49
2.7.1 Factors Affecting DBP Production ......................................50
2.7.2 Adverse Health Effects of DBPs in Drinking Water .........51
2.7.3 Regulation of DBPs in Drinking Water ..............................52
2.7.4 Examples from Literature .....................................................53
2.7.5 Emerging Contaminants in Disinfection By-Products .....53
2.7.6 Controlling Disinfection By-Products ................................55
2.8 Conclusion ............................................................................................57
Questions ........................................................................................................58
References .......................................................................................................59
3. Physical Disinfection ...................................................................................71
3.1 Introduction .........................................................................................71
3.2 Ultraviolet Radiation ..........................................................................72
3.2.1 Generation of UV ...................................................................72
3.2.2 Mechanism of Bacterial Inactivation ..................................74
3.2.3 Disinfection Efficacy ..............................................................76
3.2.3.1 Bacteria and Virus Inactivation ............................76
3.2.3.2 Protozoa Inactivation .............................................76
3.2.4 Disinfection By-Products of UV Radiation ........................78
3.3 Solar Disinfection ................................................................................80
3.3.1 Mechanisms of Solar Disinfection ......................................80
3.3.2 Factors Affecting Efficacy of Solar Disinfection................82
3.3.3 Inactivation of Microorganisms by Solar Radiation .........83
3.4 Heat Treatment ....................................................................................87
3.5 Filtration Methods ..............................................................................88
3.5.1 Reverse Osmosis ....................................................................88
3.5.2 Microfilters ..............................................................................89
3.5.3 Slow Sand Filter (SSF) ............................................................89
3.5.4 Activated Charcoal Filter ......................................................91
3.6 Distillation ............................................................................................93
3.7 Electrochemical Oxidation ................................................................95
3.8 Water Disinfection by Microwave Heating .....................................96
3.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................97
Questions ........................................................................................................98
References .......................................................................................................99
4. Hybrid Techniques .....................................................................................107
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................107
4.1.1 What Is the Basis of a Hybrid Method? ............................107
4.1.2 Inactivation Mechanism .....................................................108
Contents ix
4.1.3 Factors Affecting Hybrid Disinfection .............................108
4.1.4 Primary and Secondary Disinfectants .............................109
4.2 Hybrid Disinfection Techniques .....................................................109
4.2.1 Advanced Oxidation Processes .........................................109
4.2.1.1 How Does Peroxone Inactivate Pathogens? ......111
4.2.1.2 Disinfection By-Products of the Peroxone
Process ...................................................................112
4.2.2 Free Chlorine and Monochloramine.................................112
4.2.3 Metal Ions and Chemical Disinfection .............................113
4.2.4 Ozonation and Ultraviolet Radiation ................................114
4.2.5 Ultrasound and Ozone ........................................................114
4.2.6 Ultrasound and Chemical Disinfection............................115
4.2.7 Hydrogen Peroxide and Ultraviolet Radiation ................117
4.2.8 Hydrogen Peroxide, Ultraviolet Radiation, and
Hydrodynamic Cavitation ..................................................118
4.2.9 Hydrogen Peroxide, Ultraviolet Radiation, and Iron
Catalyst (Photo-Fenton Process) ........................................118
4.2.10 Photocatalysis .......................................................................119
4.2.11 Mechanical and Chemical Disinfection ...........................120
4.2.12 Heat and Oxidants ...............................................................121
4.3 DBP Formation with Various Primary and Secondary
Disinfectant Combinations ..............................................................121
4.4 Conclusion ..........................................................................................122
Questions ......................................................................................................123
References .....................................................................................................124
5. Cavitation-Based Disinfection Techniques ..........................................127
5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................127
5.2 What Is Cavitation? ...........................................................................128
5.2.1 Acoustic Cavitation ..............................................................128
5.2.1.1 Factors Affecting Acoustic Cavitation...............128
5.2.1.2 Generation of Ultrasound ...................................129
5.2.1.3 Sonication Equipment..........................................130
5.2.2 Hydrodynamic Cavitation ..................................................132
5.2.2.1 Cavitation Inception.............................................132
5.2.3 Bactericidal Effects of Cavitation .......................................133
5.2.3.1 Acoustic Cavitation ..............................................133
5.2.3.2 Hydrodynamic Cavitation ..................................137
5.3 Water Disinfection by Cavitation ...................................................138
5.3.1 Experiments with Cavitation .............................................138
5.3.2 Comparison of Cavitation Equipment ..............................143
5.3.3 Experiments with Chemicals .............................................145
5.3.3.1 Hydrogen Peroxide ..............................................146
5.3.3.2 Ozone .....................................................................146
5.3.4 Comparison of Chemical Techniques ...............................147
x Contents
5.3.5 Hybrid Techniques ..............................................................149
5.3.6 Comparison of All Techniques ..........................................153
5.3.6.1 Efficacy versus Scale of Operation .....................153
5.3.6.2 Treatment Cost ......................................................154
5.4 Current Status and Path Ahead ......................................................157
Questions ......................................................................................................159
References .....................................................................................................160
6. Novel Disinfection Methods ....................................................................165
6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................165
6.2 New Generation Techniques for Water Disinfection ...................165
6.2.1 Plasma Technologies ...........................................................165
6.2.1.1 Fundamentals of Plasma .....................................166
6.2.1.2 Plasma Processing in Waste Treatment ............169
6.2.1.3 Treatment of Polluted Waters .............................178
6.2.2 Super Sand for Water Disinfection ....................................182
6.2.3 Energy-Efficient Pen-Size Disinfection Devices ..............183
6.2.4 Online Monitoring Technologies for Drinking
Water Systems ......................................................................184
6.2.5 Electrocoagulation-Electroflotation...................................185
6.2.6 Nanotechnology ...................................................................186
6.2.7 Solar Disinfection (SODIS) .................................................187
6.2.8 Microbial Disinfection of Seawater: Ballast Water
Management .........................................................................189
6.2.8.1 Ballast Water Exchange .......................................190
6.2.8.2 Ballast Water Treatment Technologies ..............190
6.2.9 Supercritical Water Oxidation (SCWO) ............................202
6.2.9.1 Chemical Reactions ..............................................203
6.2.9.2 Engineering Challenges ......................................204
6.2.9.3 Operating Range for SCWO Processing ...........205
6.2.9.4 Specific Research Works ......................................206
6.2.10 Membrane-Based Treatment ..............................................207
6.2.11 Photocatalysis for Water Treatment ..................................210
6.2.11.1 Types of Reactor Configurations and Their
Hybridisation ........................................................211
6.2.11.2 Recent Studies on Disinfection ..........................213
6.2.12 Reuse of Wastewater for Potable Use ................................214
Questions ......................................................................................................215
References .....................................................................................................216