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2 n d e d i t i o n
Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
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1
ABBAGNANO – BYZANTINE PHILOSOPHY
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2 n d e d i t i o n
Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
DONALD M. BORCHERT
Editor in Chief
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Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Second Edition
Donald M. Borchert, Editor in Chief
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Encyclopedia of philosophy / Donald M. Borchert, editor in chief.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-02-865780-2 (set hardcover : alk. paper)—
ISBN 0-02-865781-0 (vol 1)—ISBN 0-02-865782-9 (vol 2)—
ISBN 0-02-865783-7 (vol 3)—ISBN 0-02-865784-5 (vol 4)—
ISBN 0-02-865785-3 (vol 5)—ISBN 0-02-865786-1 (vol 6)—
ISBN 0-02-865787-X (vol 7)—ISBN 0-02-865788-8 (vol 8)—
ISBN 0-02-865789-6 (vol 9)—ISBN 0-02-865790-X (vol 10)
1. Philosophy–Encyclopedias. I. Borchert, Donald M., 1934-
B51.E53 2005
103–dc22
2005018573
This title is also available as an e-book.
ISBN 0-02-866072-2
Contact your Thomson Gale representative for ordering information.
Printed in the United States of America
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e d i t o r i a l b o a r d
editor in chief consulting editors
DONALD M. BORCHERT LOUISE ANTONY
Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,Ohio Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,Ohio
State University
University,and Executive Board,Institute for Applied and
Professional Ethics,Ohio University
JOHN BURGESS
Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,
associate editors Princeton University
DON GARRETT VICTOR CASTON
Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,New Professor ofPhilosophy and Classical Studies,Department
York University ofPhilosophy,University ofMichigan
JAEGWON KIM RICHARD P. HAYES
William Herbert Perry Faunce Professor ofPhilosophy, Assistant Professor ofPhilosophy,Department of
Philosophy,University ofNew Mexico
Department ofPhilosophy,Brown University
JEFFREY C. KING
BARRY LOEWER
Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,
Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,
University ofSouthern California
Rutgers University
OLIVER N. LEAMAN
DOUGLAS MACLEAN
Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,
Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,
University ofKentucky
University ofNorth Carolina,Chapel Hill
VLADIMIR MARCHENKOV
ERNEST SOSA Assistant Professor ofAesthetics,School of
Romeo Elton Professor ofNatural Theology and Professor Interdisciplinary Arts,Ohio University
ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,Brown
THOMAS NENON
University; Distinguished Visiting Professor,Rutgers
Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,
University
University ofMemphis
MICHAEL TOOLEY
KARL H. POTTER
Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,
Emeritus Professor ofPhilosophy,Department of
University ofColorado at Boulder
Philosophy,University ofWashington
SUSAN WOLF PHILIP QUINN
Edna J.Koury Professor ofPhilosophy,Department of Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,
Philosophy,University ofNorth Carolina,Chapel Hill University ofNotre Dame
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editorial board
JENEFER ROBINSON JAMES P. STERBA
Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy, Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,
University ofCincinnati University ofNotre Dame
KWONG-LOI SHUN CHARLES TALIAFERRO
Vice President and Principal,University ofToronto at Professor ofPhilosophy,Department ofPhilosophy,St.
Scarborough OlafCollege
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY
VI •
2nd edition
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c o n t e n t s
volume 1
PREFACE TO 2ND EDITION
INTRODUCTION TO 1ST EDITION
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
LIST OF ARTICLES
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
PHILOSOPHY
2nd edition
Abbagnano–Byzantine Philosophy
volume 2
Cabanis–Destutt de Tracy
volume 3
Determinables–Fuzzy Logic
volume 4
Gadamer–Just War Theory
volume 5
Kabbalah–Marxist Philosophy
volume 6
Masaryk–Nussbaum
volume 7
Oakeshott–Presupposition
volume 8
Price–Sextus Empiricus
volume 9
Shaftesbury–Zubiri
volume 10
APPENDIX: ADDITIONAL ARTICLES
THEMATIC OUTLINE
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
INDEX
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY
2nd edition
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e d i t o r i a l a n d
p r o d u c t i o n s t a f f
executive vice president and publisher proofreaders
Frank Menchaca Archie Hobson,John Krol,Amy Unterburger
director, new product development bibliographic researcher
Hélène Potter Michael Farmer
project editors translators
Names oftranslators appear throughout the body ofthe
Jane A.Malonis
Encyclopedia,at the end ofeach article that has been
Carol A.Schwartz
rendered into English.
contributing editors
indexer
Erin Bealmear,Deirdre S.Blanchfield,Steve Cusack,Angela
Coughlin Indexing Services
Doolin,Susan Doty,Jason Everett,Alan Hedblad,Monica
Hubbard,Lynn Koch,Melissa McDade,Bradley J.Morgan, product design
Scot Peacock,Drew Silver,Ken Wachsberger
Kate Scheible
editorial technical support
graphic art
Josh Kondek,Andrew Malonis,Mark Mikula,Mark Springer
Argosy Publishing
manuscript editors
composition
Robert A.Arlt,Dorothy Bauhoff,Sharon R.Gunton, Evi Seoud
William Kaufman,Eric Lagergren,Steven M.Long,Gina
Misiroglu,Marie L.Thompson,Alan Thwaits,Amy manufacturing
Unterburger Wendy Blurton
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY
• IX
2nd edition
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p r e f a c e t o t h e
s e c o n d e d i t i o n
N
early four decades ago, in 1967, Macmillan ics in philosophy broadly construed.That was a winning
published its eight-volume Encyclopedia of Philosophy. formula:substantive articles by talented scholars explor-
With Paul Edwards as its exceptionally able editor in ing the full spectrum of philosophical topics. It would
chief, the Encyclopedia became a highly respected, pre- also guide the Second Edition.
mier reference work consulted by countless professors
Second, while that winning formula involved in-
and students as they pursued the examined life.Indeed,
depth and broad coverage, nevertheless it did not and
it would be safe to say that most ifnot all ofthe scholars
could not aspire to exhaustive coverage ofall philosoph-
who have contributed to the new Second Edition of the
ical topics given the constraints imposed by the limited
Encyclopedialeaned on the First Edition for philosophi-
print space available.Whether the space available was the
cal insight during their formative years as young acade-
eight volumes of the First Edition or the one volume of
micians.For them to be able to participate in reshaping a
the Supplementor the ten volumes ofthe Second Edition,
reference resource that figured importantly in their intel-
a policy of selectivity had to be pursued with the
lectual development has been a unique opportunity and
unavoidable exclusion of some material that could have
a privilege.
been,and perhaps should have been,included.
When Macmillan invited me to serve as editor in
Third,to maintain the tradition ofexcellence estab-
chief for the new ten-volume Second Edition, the task
lished by the First Edition,an editor in chiefneeds to be
appeared daunting because of its magnitude.But it also
surrounded by a group of distinguished philosophers
seemed manageable because backing me up was a valu-
who represent expertise in diverse subfields and who are
able learning experience I had as the editor in chief for
willing to commit considerable time and effort to serve
Macmillan’s single-volume Supplement, published in
on an editorial board.I was fortunate indeed to have the
1996,that updated the Encyclopedia.Among the insights
support ofan editorial team for the Supplementconsist-
I gained from that experience three were especially
ing of K.Danner Clouser,Paul Horwich,Jaegwon Kim,
important.
Joseph J. Kockelmans, Helen E. Longino,Vann McGee,
First,it seemed that the Encyclopediahad gained the Louis Pojman,Ernest Sosa,and Michael Tooley.Because
respect of academicians because its articles provided of them,and the highly competent authors they helped
substantive discussions by exceptionally competent to recruit,the Supplement continued Macmillan’s tradi-
scholars and its coverage embraced a wide range of top- tion ofpublishing highly regarded reference works.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY
• XI
2nd edition
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preface to the second edition
Editorial Board Formation From the very beginning,our project’s goal was not
to replace the First Edition and the Supplement but to
Upon accepting the role ofeditor in chieffor the Second
build the Second Edition on the foundation oftheir out-
Edition,I immediately turned to three ofmy former edi-
standing scholarly work.Accordingly,the task set before
torial colleagues—Jaegwon Kim, Michael Tooley, and
each editor was to analyze all the entries in the First Edi-
Ernest Sosa—and invited them to become the core of a
tion and the Supplementthat were pertinent to his or her
new Board of Associate Editors that would assist me in
domain in order to determine which entries should be
planning the new edition. The guidance provided by
retained “as is”in the Second Edition with perhaps only a
these three colleagues has been astute,seasoned,and truly
bibliographical update,which entries should be retained
indispensable from the early planning stages until the day
but needed an updating addendum, and which entries
of publication. With their assistance we were able to
should be replaced by entirely new ones.In addition,all
recruit Don Garrett,Barry Loewer,Doug MacLean,and
editors were given the opportunity to commission
Susan Wolf to join the Board of Associate Editors.Then
entirely new entries in their subfields. Each editor also
we constituted a Board ofConsulting Editors that would
had the responsibility to review and assess all new mate-
add expertise in specific subfields of philosophy not
rial appearing in his or her subfield.This generic descrip-
already covered by the specializations ofthe associate edi-
tion of the work of our subfield editors for the Second
tors.The result was the impressive editorial team of dis-
Edition masks all too easily the many hours of painstak-
tinguished philosophers listed below. Their areas of
ing effort devoted to this project by these scholars.
editorial oversight are noted after their names.
In early autumn of 2004, regrettably, our editorial
The Board ofAssociate Editors
colleague Phil Quinn passed away after a brief struggle
Don Garrett—Modern Philosophy
with esophageal cancer.Prior to his death,however,Phil
Jaegwon Kim—Philosophy ofMind had overseen his domain with an extraordinarily watch-
ful and skilled eye.He had analyzed in detail every entry
Barry Loewer—Philosophy ofScience
relating to the philosophy of religion in the First Edition
Doug MacLean—Ethics and Applied Ethics
and the Supplement, and sent me copious notes and
Ernest Sosa—Epistemology recommendations for either improving, retaining, or
Michael Tooley—Metaphysics replacing those entries.He also made specific recommen-
dations for new entries to be commissioned and wrote
Susan Wolf—Ethics and Applied Ethics
detailed scope descriptions for those entries.When his ill-
The Board ofConsulting Editors ness forced him to withdraw from his teaching at the Uni-
versity of Notre Dame, he continued to work on the
Louise Antony—Feminist Philosophy
Second Edition,which provided concrete purpose for the
John Burgess—Logic,Philosophy of Logic,Philoso-
day at hand.Phil worked carefully,deliberately,and had
phy ofMathematics
his eye on the prize of excellence.His fine work made it
Victor Caston—Ancient Philosophy, Medieval Phi- relatively easy for our colleague Charles Taliaferro to
losophy assume Phil’s responsibilities on the editorial team.
Richard P.Hayes—Buddhist Philosophy If the Second Edition continues the tradition of
Jeffrey King—Philosophy ofLanguage excellence initiated by the First Edition,as I believe it will,
that accomplishment will be due in no small measure to
Oliver Leaman—Islamic Philosophy,Judaic Philoso-
the exceptionally high quality work provided by our edi-
phy
tors who,like Phil,have given of their time and talent to
Vladimir Marchenkov—Russian Philosophy enhance the work ofphilosophy.
Thomas Nenon—Continental Philosophy
Development of the Second
Karl H.Potter—Indian Philosophy
Edition’s Content
Philip Quinn—Philosophy ofReligion
Our strategy ofbuilding the Second Edition on the foun-
Jenefer Robinson—Aesthetics,Philosophy ofArt
dation ofthe First Edition and the Supplementrequires a
Kwong-loi Shun—Chinese Philosophy
few additional comments.
James Sterba—Social and Political Philosophy
Carefully and judiciously our editorial team selected
Charles Taliaferro—Philosophy ofReligion those entries from the First Edition and the Supplement
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY
XII •
2nd edition