Dissertation - Alaska Native Knowledge Network - University of

263 Pages·2010·5.3 MB·English

NIUGNELIYUKUT (WE ARE MAKING NEW WORDS):
A COMMUNITY PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION

A
THESIS

Presented to the Faculty
of the University of Alaska Fairbanks

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

By

April Gale Laktonen Counceller, M.A.

Fairbanks, Alaska

December 2010
iii
Abstract
The Alutiiq language on Kodiak Island (Alaska) is severely threatened, with
only 37 resident speakers. The Alutiiq communities of Kodiak are engaged in a
multifaceted heritage revitalization movement, which includes cultural education,
revitalization of arts, and language revitalization. The language revitalization effort
includes education, materials development, documentation, and terminology
development (creation of new words) as a means of making the language more viable.
The Kodiak Alutiiq New Words Council began in the fall of 2007. This language
revitalization strategy is new to the Alutiiq community, and little research has been
done on Alaska Native or Indigenous terminology development as a form of heritage
revitalization. There is a need to understand the New Words Council in terms of its
role in the wider language and heritage revitalization efforts, as well as understanding
the value of the council to its members.
The Kodiak New Words Council is a contemporary heritage revitalization
effort that entails development of new Alutiiq terms, and is part of a broader social
movement to revitalize Alutiiq language and culture. Some past research on cultural
heritage revitalization movements in Indigenous communities have focused on
historical inaccuracies and ‘inventedness’ of new cultural forms, rather than the value
and meaning of these efforts to their participants. Critiques of ‘invention’ scholarship
counter that it denies Indigenous communities’ agency and authority over their own
cultural forms, and overlooks ongoing efforts for justice, sovereignty and healing.
This study focuses attention on the social and historical context of heritage
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revitalization and its meaning to participants. Benefits of the council go beyond the
formal goal of developing new words to modernize the language. Participants put
great value on social benefits of the New Words Council, such as empowerment,
connection to culture and identity, and healing. They further measure the success of
the New Words Council in terms of participation, commitment, and continuity.
Ultimately, this language revitalization effort is part of a broader effort of self-
determination and community survival.
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Table of Contents

Page
Signature Page………………………………….………………………………...……i
Title Page…………………………………….…………………………...…………...ii
Abstract……………………………….……….……………………………………..iii
Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………..v
List of Figures…………….……………………………….……….…………….…....x
List of Tables…………….……………………………….……….………….…........xi
List of Appendices……….……………………………….…...….……………….... xii
Preface…………….……………………………….………..…………….…….......xiii
Acknowledgements…………….………………………...…….………..…….…......xv
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Site and Study…………………….………………..1
1.1 Introduction………………………….………………….……….……..1
1.2 This Study………………………….………………….………..…...…4
1.3 The Findings………………………….………………….……….........5
1.4 Overview of the Study………………………….…………….…….….5
Chapter 2: The Research Site……………………….……………………………...10
2.1 Introduction………………………….………………….……….........10
2.2 The Alutiiq Communities of Kodiak Island, Alaska……………….....10
2.2.1 The Alutiiq Language...............................................................13
2.2.2 The Alutiiq Language on Kodiak..............................................15
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Page
2.3 Changes after Contact………………………….…………………..…17
2.4 Academic Research on the Alutiiq Language…………………….......20
2.5 Community Based Alutiiq Language Research……………………....21
2.6 Rationale for the New Words Council………………......................…24
2.7 A Typical New Words Council Meeting………………………..........26
2.8 Conclusion………………………………………………....................42
Chapter 3: Literature Review………………………...............…….................…....43
3.1 Introduction………………………………………….......................…43
3.2 Language Revitalization and Heritage Revitalization………...………44
3.3 Academic Critiques of Heritage and Language Revitalization……….46
3.4 Critiques of ‘Invention’ Scholarship……………………………….…49
3.5 Language Policy and Planning………………………………………..54
3.5.1 Categories of Language Planning……………………........….55
3.5.2 Terminological Development……………………………...…58
3.6 Analysis of Language Policy and Planning……………………….....61
3.7 Language Shift and Revitalization………………………………........63
3.8 Grassroots Language Planning and Linguistic Sovereignty………….65
3.9 Conclusions……………………………………………………...……67
Chapter 4: Indigenous Action Research………………………….......…………70
4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………...70
4.2 Caqiq Indigenous? (What is Indigenous?)……………………….......71
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Page
4.3 Indigenous Epistemologies ………………………………………….75
4.4 Indigenous Action Research……….......…………………………..…79
4.4.1 Basics of Indigenous Action Research………....…......……....81
4.4.2 Research, Self-representation, and Sovereignty…………....…86
4.5 Indigenous Research: Separatist or Inclusive?…………………...…..90
4.6 Conclusion………………………………………............................…93
Chapter 5: Methodology………………………….………………............................95
5.1 Introduction……………………………………….…..........................95
5.2 Data Collection Techniques…………………………………………..95
5.3 Analytical Methodology………………………………………….......98
5.4 Inclusion, Identification, and Protection of Participants…………….102
5.5 Researcher Positionality ……………………………………………105
Chapter 6: Analytical Frameworks – Activity Theory and Constructivist
Grounded Theory……………………………….………………………………….109

6.1 Introduction………………………………………………………....109
6.1.1 Roles of Activity Theory and Constructivist Grounded Theory
…………………………………………………………............….…110

6.2 Basics of Activity Theory…………………………………………...113
6.3 History of Activity Theory……………………………………….…117
6.4 Key Components of Activity Theory used in this Study…..……….121
6.4.1 Holism……………………………………………………....121
6.4.2 Transformation……………………………………………...123
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Page
6.5 Constructivist Grounded Theory..............…………………………...130
6.6 Conclusion……………………………………………………….…135
Chapter 7: Holism and the New Words Council………………………….......137
7.1 Introduction…………………………………………………….........137
7.2 Community Matrix of Language Revitalization………………….…138
7.3 The New Words Council Activity Triangle………………................143
7.4 Division of Labor……………………………………………………147
7.5 Relationships…………………………………………………….......149
7.6 Conclusion…………………………………………………………..154
Chapter 8: Transformation…………………………………………………….156
8.1 Introduction…………………………………………………….........156
8.2 Historicity……………………………………………………...........157
8.3 Mediation……………………………………………………………158
8.3.1 Physical Tools…………………………………………….....159
8.3.2 Intangible Tools……………………………………………..161
8.3.3 Participants as Mediators………………………………...….164
8.4 Contradictions and Innovations…………………………………….168
8.5 Community-specific Definitions of Success……………………..…170
8.6 Stated and Emergent Objectives and Benefits…………………...…171
8.6.1 Social benefits……………………………………………….173
8.6.2 Intellectual Benefits………………………………………...174
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Page
8.6.3 Connection to Culture and Identity………………………….178
8.6.4 Healing……………………………………………………....179
8.6.5 Status and Empowerment………..............…………………..182
8.6.6 Agency and Resistance.………………….………………….186
8.7 Culturally-specific Measures of Success…………………………....189
8.7.1 Participation…………………………………………..……..189
8.7.2 Commitment…………………………………..……………..190
8.7.3 Continuity…………………………………………………....192
8.8 Conclusion………………………………………………………......194
Chapter 9: Conclusions and Discussion…………………………….………….196
9.1 Introduction………………………………………………………….196
9.2 Heritage Revitalization is Denial of Acculturation rather than
Performance........................................................................................197

9.3 Heritage Revitalization is an Activity Defined by Tradition and
Innovation...........................................................................................200

9.4 Heritage Revitalization an Effort of Resistance and
Community Survival...........................................................................203

9.5 Discussion & Implications…………………………………………..205
9.6 Conclusion: The Angyaq (“open skin boat”) of Alutiiq Language
Revitalization………..........................................................................207

Appendices………………………………...............………………………………...212

References..………………………………...............………………………………..226
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List of Figures

Page
Figure 2.1 Alaska Native Languages Map.............................................................11
Figure 2.2 Kodiak Archipelago..............................................................................13
Figure 2.3 Eskimo-Aleut Language Family Tree..................................................14
Figure 3.1 Overlapping Categories of Language Planning....................................57
Figure 4.1 Spiral of Action Research.....................................................................82
Figure 6.1 Activity Theory Triangle....................................................................114
Figure 6.2 Early (1st Generation) Activity System Triangle...............................118
Figure 7.1 Alutiiq Culture & Language Activities..............................................142
Figure 7.2 Kodiak New Words Council Activity Triangle..................................144
Figure 7.3 Bridge of Alutiiq Language................................................................150
Figure 9.1 Angyaq (“open skin boat”)..................................................................207