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Human–Computer Interaction Series Jean-François Uhl Joaquim Jorge Daniel Simões Lopes Pedro F. Campos Editors Digital Anatomy Applications of Virtual, Mixed and Augmented Reality Human–Computer Interaction Series Editors-in-Chief DesneyTan MicrosoftResearch,Redmond,WA,USA JeanVanderdonckt LouvainSchoolofManagement,UniversitécatholiquedeLouvain, Louvain-La-Neuve,Belgium The Human–Computer Interaction Series, launched in 2004, publishes books that advancethescienceandtechnologyofdevelopingsystemswhichareeffectiveand satisfying for people in a wide variety of contexts. Titles focus on theoretical perspectives (such as formal approaches drawn from a variety of behavioural sciences), practical approaches (such as techniques for effectively integrating user needsinsystemdevelopment),andsocialissues(suchasthedeterminantsofutility, usabilityandacceptability). HCI is a multidisciplinary field and focuses on the human aspects in the development of computer technology. As technology becomes increasingly more pervasive the need to take a human-centred approach in the design and developmentofcomputer-basedsystemsbecomesevermoreimportant. TitlespublishedwithintheHuman–ComputerInteractionSeriesareincludedin Thomson Reuters’ Book Citation Index, The DBLP Computer Science BibliographyandTheHCIBibliography. Moreinformationaboutthisseriesathttp://www.springer.com/series/6033 · · Jean-François Uhl Joaquim Jorge · Daniel Simões Lopes Pedro F. Campos Editors Digital Anatomy Applications of Virtual, Mixed and Augmented Reality Editors Jean-FrançoisUhl JoaquimJorge ParisDescartesUniversity INESC-IDLisboa Paris,France InstitutoSuperiorTécnico UniversidadedeLisboa DanielSimõesLopes Lisbon,Portugal INESC-IDLisboa InstitutoSuperiorTécnico PedroF.Campos UniversidadedeLisboa DepartmentofInformatics Lisbon,Portugal UniversityofMadeira Funchal,Portugal ISSN1571-5035 ISSN2524-4477 (electronic) Human–ComputerInteractionSeries ISBN978-3-030-61904-6 ISBN978-3-030-61905-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61905-3 ©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SwitzerlandAG2021 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether thewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuse ofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,and transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublication doesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevant protectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbook arebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsor theeditorsgiveawarranty,expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforany errorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictional claimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Foreword by Mark Billinghurst Asadiscipline,anatomycantraceitsrootsbacktoatleastancientEgyptandpapyri that described the heart and other internal organs. In the thousands of years since knowledgeofanatomyimproveddramatically,inmostofthathistorythemainway to understand the body was through dissection and looking beneath the skin. At thecloseofthenineteenthcentury,thedevelopmentoftheX-raymachineenabled imagestobecapturedfromwithinthebody,andthiswasfollowedbymanyother imaging technologies. At the same time at the invention of the CT scanner, the first interactive computer graphics was also demonstrated. Since then advances in computergraphicsandmedicalimaginghavegonehandinhand.Digitalanatomy hasemergedasanessentialsubfieldof anatomythatprocessesthehumanbodyin acomputer-accessibleformat. The many different revolutions brought about by computer graphics, visualization, and interactive techniques have meant that digital anatomy is a rapidly evolving discipline. One of the main goals is to provide a greater understanding of the spatial structure of the body and its internal organs. Virtual Reality(VR)andAugmentedReality(AR)areparticularlyvaluableforthis.Using VR, people can immerse themselves in a graphical representation of the body, whilewithARvirtualanatomycanbesuperimposedbackintotherealbody.Both provide an intuitive way to view and interact with digital anatomy, which could bring about a revolution in many health-related fields. This book provides a valuable overview of applications of Virtual, Mixed, and Augmented Reality in DigitalAnatomy. JustasX-raymachinesandCTscannerschanged twentieth-centuryhealthcare, medical image analysis is revolutionizing twenty-first-century medicine, ushering inpowerfulnewtoolsdesignedtoassisttheclinicaldiagnosisandtobettermodel, simulate, and guide the patient’s therapy more efficiently. Doctors can perform image-guidedsurgerythroughsmallincisionsinthebodyanduseARandVRtools to help with pre-operative planning. In academic settings, digital technologies are changing anatomy education by improving retention and learning outcomes with new learning tools such as virtual dissection. This book provides comprehensive coverage of many medical applications relying on digital anatomy ranging from educationaltopathologytosurgicaluses. v vi ForewordbyMarkBillinghurst AnoutstandingexampleofthevalueofdigitalanatomywastheVisibleHuman Project(VHP)unveiledbytheUnitedStatesNationalLibraryofMedicineattheend ofthetwentiethcentury.TheVHPmadehigh-resolutiondigitalimagesofanatomical parts of a cryosectioned body freely available on the Internet, accompanied by a collectionofvolumetricmedicalimagesacquiredbeforeslicing.Theseimagesare usedbycomputerscientistsworldwidetocreaterepresentationsofmostorganswith exceptionalprecision.Manyotherprojects,includingtheVisibleKoreanandChinese visible human male and female projects, achieved greater fidelity of images and improvedanatomicaldetails.DigitalatlasesbasedontheVHPhavemadeitpossible tonavigatethehumanbodyinthreedimensions,andhaveproventobeimmensely valuableasaneducationaltool. Theseoriginalvirtualhumanreconstructionswereverylabor-intensiveandonly depictedasingleperson’sparticularstructures.Thereremainsmucharduouswork to be done to make the data derived from visible human projects meet the application-oriented needs of many fields. Researchers are making significant progress toward developing new datasets, segmenting and creating computer-assisted medicine platforms. In the second decade of the twenty-first century, a new approach is used: we no longer seek to visualize individual representations ofanatomy butrather model and display statisticalrepresentations within an entire population. Modern approaches use powerful algorithmic and mathematical tools applied to massive image databases to identify and register anatomical singularities to visualize statistical representations of shapes and appearanceswithinapopulation. Afascinatingaspectofdigitalanatomyisitsstrongmultidisciplinaryflavor,and willingnessofresearchersinthefieldtoexperimentwithnewtechnology.Augmented andVirtualRealityplayavitalroleingrowingthisemergingfield.Forexample,AR interfacesoverlaythree-dimensionalimagesintherealworldandcanmakeintricate structuresanddelicaterelationshipseasiertodiscernbetweentrainedanduntrained eyes.Similarly,VRcanbeusedtoenablegroupsofmedicalstudentstobeimmersed indigitalanatomyandlearntogetheraboutthehumanbody. Future advances in digital patient research will rely heavily on algorithmic, statistical, and mathematical techniques in image processing, advances in digital modeling of the human body’s anatomy and physiology, and methods and algorithms for customizing structural body models from measurements. These are likely to benefit from new medical imaging technologies and foreseeable improvements in hardware performance, both in computing speed and in the capacity to store and transmit information. This book provides a comprehensive coverage of many of these advances, ranging from educational to pathology to surgicalapplications. JustlikeX-raymachinesandCTscannersrevolutionizedmedicinehundredsof yearsago,ARandVRwillhaveanimpactonmedicineforthenexthundredyears andbeyond.Readerswillfindglimpsesofthisfutureinpagesofthisbook.Ihope ForewordbyMarkBillinghurst vii that readers will find inspiration in this valuable collection of articles and it will stimulatetheirendeavorstoadvanceresearchinthiscriticalfield. Auckland,NewZealand MarkBillinghurst September2020 Foreword by Nicholas Ayache As both the patient data and medical practice become more and more digital, it is alsothecasefortheanatomydisciplinethatundergoesacomputationalrevolution. Thisbookpresentsalltheaspectsofthiscomputationalrevolution;forinstance, howtocreatedissectionsfrom3Dmodelswhichareusefulforanatomicalresearch andteaching,howtotailorthosemodelstopatient-specificanatomiesfrommedical images, how to compute statistics based on digital anatomical models, how to introduce novel human–computer interfaces to perform digital dissection tasks, how Extended Reality opens new avenues for dissecting digital anatomical representations… Not only this book presents methodological concepts and methods, but it also showcasespracticaltoolsandalgorithmsthatareusefulforphysicians,anatomists, andcomputerscientistsinterestedindigitalanatomy:fromstudentstoresearchers, fromteacherstoindustrypractitionersfromvariousbackgroundsincludingnotonly medicine and biology but also paleontology, history, arts, computer science, and appliedmathematics. Finally, this book will contribute to advance research in e-medicine as the Extended Reality applications, tools, methods, and algorithms presented in this book are relevant for computer-aided diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy that, in turn, heavily rely on a faithful digital representation of a patient’s anatomy or, in otherwords,apatient’sdigitaltwin.Suchadvancementspresentedinthisbookwill be paramount for the physicians and surgeons to improve their medical practice’s qualityandprecision.Therefore,intheend,theseadvancementswillcontributeto thebenefitofalltherealpatientsintheworld. SophiaAntipolis,France NicholasAyache September2020 ix Acknowledgments Theeditorswouldliketowholeheartedlythanktheanonymousreviewers’effort,who provided solid insights and worked to improve the scientific quality to this book. We are also grateful to all the book’s authors for sharing their valuable technical and scientific standpoints regarding Digital Anatomy. We hope the book will help spearheadtheirresearch. Jean-FrançoisUhlthankstheUNESCOChairinTeachingandResearchinDigital AnatomyParisDescartesforitssupport. Joaquim Jorge is grateful to the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology and the New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation, and Employment, which partially funded this work through Grants UIDB/50021/2020 andSFRH/BSAB/150387/2019,andCATALYST19-VUW-015-ILF,respectively. DanielSimõesLopesacknowledgesINESC-IDLisboa,theUniversityofLisbon, andthePortugueseFoundationforScienceandTechnology. PedroF.CamposacknowledgesITI/LARSysandthePortugueseFoundationfor ScienceandTechnology. xi