Designing & conducting ethnographic research : an introduction

281 Pages·2010·1.769 MB·English

by  Margaret D. LeCompte University of Colorado Boulder, Jean J. Schensul Institute for Community Research

Designing &
Conducting
Ethnographic
Research
The Ethnographer’s Toolkit
Second Edition
Jean J. Schensul, Institute for Community Research, Hartford CT
Margaret D. LeCompte, University of Colorado, Boulder CO
Purpose of The Ethnographer’s Toolkit
The second edition of the The Ethnographer’s Toolkit is designed with the novice field
researcher in mind. In this revised and updated version, the authors of the Toolkit take the
reader through a series of seven books that spell out the steps involved in doing ethnographic
research in community and institutional settings. Using simple, reader-friendly language, the
Toolkit includes case studies, examples, illustrations, checklists, key points and additional
resources, all designed to help the reader fully understand each and every step of the
ethnographic process. Eschewing a formulaic approach, the authors explain how to develop
research questions, create research designs and models, decide which data collection methods
to use and how to analyze and interpret data. Two new books take readers through ethical
decision-making and protocols specific for protection of individual and group participants in
qualitative research, and ways of applying qualitative and ethnographic research to practical
program development, evaluation and systems change efforts. The Toolkit is the perfect
starting point for students and faculty in the social sciences, public health, education,
environmental studies, allied health, and nursing, who may be new to ethnographic research. It
also introduces professionals from diverse fields to the use of observation, assessment, and
evaluation for practical ways to improve programs and achieve better service outcomes.
1. Designing & Conducting Ethnographic Research: An Introduction, by Margaret D.
LeCompte and Jean J. Schensul
2. Initiating Ethnographic Research: Models, Methods, and Measurement, by Stephen L.
Schensul, Jean J. Schensul, and Margaret D. LeCompte
3. Essential Ethnographic Data Collection Methods: Observations, Interviews, and
Ethnographic Surveys, by Jean J. Schensul and Margaret D. LeCompte
4. Specialized Ethnographic Methods: Cultural Artifacts, Secondary Data, Mapping
Culture, Spatial Data, Hidden Populations, Multimedia, Photovoice, and Digital Data,
edited by Jean J. Schensul and Margaret D. LeCompte
5. Analysis and Interpretation of Ethnographic Data, by Margaret D. LeCompte and Jean
J. Schensul
6. Ethics in Ethnography: Fieldwork, Researcher Roles, and Institutional Relationships,
by Margaret D. LeCompte and Jean J. Schensul
7. Ethnography in Practice: Using Collaborative Ethnography to Solve Social
Problems, by Jean J. Schensul and Margaret D. LeCompte
Designing &
Conducting
Ethnographic
Research
An Introduction
Second Edition
Margaret D. LeCompte
and Jean J. Schensul
A division of
ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC.
Lanham • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK
Published by AltaMira Press
A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.
4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706
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Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2010 by AltaMira Press
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including
information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote
passages in a review.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
LeCompte, Margaret Diane.
Designing and conducting ethnographic research : an introduction / by Margaret D.
LeCompte and Jean J. Schensul. — 2nd ed.
p. cm. — (Ethnographer’s toolkit ; 1)
ISBN 978-0-7591-1869-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-0-7591-1870-6 (electronic)
1. Ethnology—Research. 2. Ethnology—Methodology. 3. Research—Evaluation.
I. Schensul, Jean J. II. Title.
GN345.S35 2010
305.8001—dc22 2010017869
` ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information
Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.
Printed in the United States of America
Contents
List of Tables and Figures ix
List of Examples xi
Introduction xvii
Chapter 1 What Is Ethnography? 1
Ethnography as Science 1
The Historical Evolution of Ethnographic Methods 5
Ethnography for Problem Identification and Solving 8
Characteristics of Ethnography 12
What Is Culture? Differentiating the Individual from 24
the Cultural
A Note on Ethnicity, Culture, and Race 27
Power, Situatedness, and Positionality 30
The Impact of Cultural Politics on Identity and Research 32
Chapter 2 When, Where, and By Whom Should Ethnography 35
Be Used?
Situations Requiring Ethnographic Research 35
Settings Appropriate for Ethnographic Research 41
Who Should Do Ethnographic Research? 45
Important Personality and Stylistic Requisites for 46
Ethnographers
Chapter 3 Paradigms for Framing the Conduct of 55
Ethnographic Research
Multiple Perspectives: A Cultural Way of Doing Research 56
What Are Research Paradigms? 57
The Positivist Paradigm 58
The Critical Paradigm 62
Interpretive Paradigms: Meaning-Making in 67
Interactional Contexts
The Ecological Paradigm 71
The Social Network Paradigm 73
A Paradigmatic Synthesis 76
Summary 85
Chapter 4 An Overview of Research Design 87
Research Design: A Blueprint for Action 87
Research Designs in Social Science Research 95
Quantitative Designs 95
Qualitative Designs 112
Rapid or Compressed Research 122
Mixing Designs: Integrating Quantitative and 126
Experimental with Qualitative Research Designs
Chapter 5 Choosing and Designing an Ethnographic 129
Research Project
Where Do Research Questions Come From? 130
Deciding What to Investigate: Transforming 134
Research Purposes into the Elements of a
Research Design
Putting Together the Elements of a Research Design 135
Elaborating Research Questions 137
What Are Data? 143
The Processes of Operationalization and Research 147
Modeling
Conceptualizing Research Models and Conceptual 150
Modeling
Identifying Populations and Study Sites 154
Strategies for Selection of Sampling and Units 169
for Study
Chapter 6 Collecting Ethnographic Data 173
Techniques for Collecting Multiple Types of Data 173
Resources and Logistics: How Ethnographers 183
Allocate Time, Money, and Staff
Creating Planning Documents and Timelines 187
Summary 192
Chapter 7 Data Analysis: How Ethnographers Make Sense 195
of Their Data
Analysis as Both a Cognitive Process and a Technical 195
Procedure
“Chunking” Data into Large Conceptual Categories 199
or “Bins”
Defining Terms: Operational and Conceptual Levels 204
of Analysis
Finding Initial Themes or Regularities 210
The Item Level of Analysis: Isolating Empirical “Bits” 213
from Streams of Data
The Pattern Level of Analysis: Aggregating Similar 215
or Related Items into Groups
The Structural Level of Analysis: Assembling Multiple 217
Patterns into Structures or Local Theories Informed
by Conceptual Domains
Seeking Complex Relationships across Domains and 220
Structures by Using Multiple Levels and Sources of Data
Interpreting the Results: Figuring Out What the 220
Story Means
Levels of Theory 222
Summary 224
Chapter 8 Identifying and Building Research Teams and 227
Research Partnerships
Building and Conducting Ethnographic Team Research 231
Building Interdisciplinary Community Research 243
Partnerships
Challenges and Rewards in Ethnographic Teamwork 249
and Interdisciplinary Intersectoral Collaborations
Chapter 9 Applying Ethnography 251
Introduction to Applying Ethnography 251
Products of Ethnography 252
Informing Public Audiences: Dissemination 254
Developing Interventions: Formative Research 262
Improving Quantitative Instruments 265
Influencing Teacher/Educator Practice 267
Democratizing Ethnography through Participatory 270
Action Research
Improving Process and Outcome Evaluations 272
Influencing Policy 277
Supporting Advocacy 279
Contributing to Science 281
Summary 282
Chapter 10 Protection of Risk to Human Subjects and the Ethics 285
of Ethnographic Fieldwork
A Brief History of Concern for the Ethical Treatment 286
of Research Participants
Ethics and the Individual Researcher 303
Ethics and Institutional Issues 306
The Special Concerns and Ethical Responsibilities 309
of Ethnographers
Conclusion 316
References 319
Index 337
About the Authors 353
List of Tables and Figures
Table 3.1: A Comparison of Paradigms 80
Figure 4.1: Steps in the Research Process 91
Table 4.1: Standard Survey and Experimental Research Designs 96
Used in the Social Sciences
Table 4.2: Differences Among Treatment, Comparison, and 102
Control Groups
Table 4.3: Experimental Designs Using Treatment, Comparison, 103
and Control Groups
Table 4.4: Standard Qualitative Designs Used in the Social Sciences 114
Table 4.5: Mixed Methods: Using Qualitative Research Methods 127
with Quantitative Research Designs
Table 4.6: Mixed Methods: Using Quantitative Methods with 128
Qualitative Research Designs
Figure 5.1: A Formative Research Model 152
Figure 5.2: Practical Criteria for Population Selection 157
Table 5.1: Identifying Population Boundaries 163
Table 6.1: Data Collection Methods 175
Figure 6.1: Data Collection Matrix Planning Outline 188
Table 6.2: An Initial Data Collection Matrix for The Learning 189
Circle Program
Table 6.3: An Example of Project Goals, Timelines, and Completion 192
Information from Urban Women Against Substance Abuse
Table 7.1: The Theoretical/Conceptual and Operational/Empirical 208
Levels of Research
Figure 7.1: Conceptual Taxonomies and Coding Levels: Domains, 209
Factors, Variables, and Items for Coding and Analysis, Used in
a Study of AIDS Risk Associated with Drug Use Locations
List of Examples
1.1: Defining problems in a Navajo community 10
1.2: Identifying depression as a problem for study and intervention 10
in low-income senior housing
1.3: Partnerships and collaboration in a project on AIDS risk and 17
drug use in elder adults
1.4: Building a theory about AIDS risk in Mauritius 19
1.5: Building a theory about teacher burnout 21
1.6: Navajo and European American differences in defining a 22
school district’s problems
1.7: Using context and community cues to interpret Puerto Rican 23
reproductive health practices
1.8: Using cultural information to select appropriate research 25
instruments
1.9: Distinguishing patterns of from patterns for behavior 26
2.1: Using ethnography to identify the origin of problems when 36
those origins are not clear: Conflict in urban community gardens
2.2: Using ethnography when the origin of the problem is not well 37
understood: Pneumonia and child mortality in China
2.3: Using ethnography to define a problem: Puerto Rican school 38
enrollment in the USA
2.4: Using ethnography when standard instruments cannot access 40
the whole story: Why AIDS prevention strategies sometimes fail
2.5: Using ethnography to identify obstacles to diabetes control 42
among Puerto Ricans
2.6: Using ethnography for community arts programming 43
2.7: Using ethnography in environmental planning, protection, 43
and development
2:8: When a research partner does not understand the 50
ethnographic design or the research purpose
2.9: When quantitatively trained fieldworkers do not see the 51
importance of collecting ethnographic data
3.1: Fals-Borda’s critical participatory action research approach 65
3.2: Constructing shared norms about assessment and evaluation 71
in an arts education program
3.3: Oil prices, tourism, and local economies in the Guatemalan 77
Highlands
4.1: Using ethnography to study weight-loss clients who don’t 93
lose weight
4.2: A mixed methods ethnographic study of alcohol use and 93
sexual risk among men in India
4.3: Bias in census surveys 98
4.4: Bias in telephone surveys 98
4.5: Addressing potential bias in survey language 98
4.6: Bias introduced by survey interviewers 99
4.7: Bias introduced by survey researchers 99
4.8: Using experimental design to assess language arts programs 104
4.9: Using experimental design to assess wound treatment 104
4.10: An ethnographic experimental design with multiple 105
comparison groups
4.11: A controlled field study of an arts education program 108
4.12: Case control study of acute respiratory infection in China 110
4.13: Procedural problems in a field study of playground use 111
4.14: Procedural problems and disasters in a field study of 111
bilingual education
4.15: Triangulation in a multisite rapid assessment of nutrition and 123
primary care
4.16: Using rapid assessment and action research to establish 125
a women’s health initiative in India
5.1: An arts education program solicits an evaluation, but the 130
research question is unclear
5.2: Selection by research site: A community coalition initiates a study 132
5.3: Selection by interested party: Initiation of cancer research by 132
a cancer survivor
5.4: Elaboration of an initial problem into research questions about 137
urban American Indian children: The Learning Circle Program
5.5: Evolution of a research problem from concrete questions to 141
theoretically informed ones: Managing diabetes among Puerto Rican immigrants
5.6: Proclaiming and preserving Mayan identity through weaving 149
5.7: Building a formative model in Mauritius 151
5.8: Identifying units of analysis from an incomplete but known list 165
when locating the entire population is impossible
5.9: Identifying multiple units of analysis in a study of teacher 166
competency testing
5.10: Identifying multiple units of analysis in a study of teacher 166
behavior
5.11: Identifying multilevel units of analysis in a study of older 167
adults and flu vaccination
6.1: Triangulating student achievement measures to compensate 181
for gaps in the testing program: The Learning Circle
6.2: Triangulating data on HIV risk, drug use, and sexual behavior 182
in Mauritius
6.3: Negotiating less costly student impact measures for an arts 185
education program
6.4: When to justify exceeding budget limits on a research project 186
7.1: When additional themes emerge in a study in the course of 211
data collection
7.2: Two early emergent themes associated with Ecstasy use among 212
young adults
7.3: When emergent themes contradict the original intent of a study 212
7.4: Using ideas and hunches from researchers’ field journals to 214
generate analytic categories (variables) for The Learning
Circle study
7.5: Interpreting gender-based vulnerability in Sri Lanka 221
8.1: Resolving intrateam conflicts over how to carry out a survey 233
8.2: Problems resulting when a team member inadequately learns 237
the principles and concepts informing the study design
8.3: Confusing inference with description 238
8.4: Building a diverse ethnographic field team 240
8.5: Matching data collection strategies with fieldworker preferences: I 242
8.6: Matching data collection strategies with fieldworker preferences: II 242
8.7: Making compatibility with the required data collection strategies 243
a job qualification
8.8: Organizing a research partnership for representativeness and 244
centralized decision making
8.9: Advantages of a well-planned consortium 246
9.1: Disseminating the results of ten years of research on youth and 256