Design Thinking: Creativity, Collaboration and Culture

253 Pages·2020·6.062 MB·English

by  Ju Hyun Lee, Michael J. Ostwald, Ning Gu

Ju Hyun Lee
Michael J. Ostwald
Ning Gu
Design Thinking:
Creativity,
Collaboration
and Culture
Design Thinking: Creativity, Collaboration
and Culture
Ju Hyun Lee Michael J. Ostwald
(cid:129) (cid:129)
Ning Gu
Design Thinking: Creativity,
Collaboration and Culture
123
Ju HyunLee Michael J.Ostwald
UNSW BuiltEnvironment UNSW BuiltEnvironment
University of NewSouthWales University of NewSouthWales
Sydney,NSW,Australia Sydney,NSW,Australia
NingGu
UniSACreative
University of SouthAustralia
Adelaide, SA,Australia
ISBN978-3-030-56557-2 ISBN978-3-030-56558-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56558-9
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Preface
In its simplest form, “design thinking” refers to the reasoning processes that occur
during the act of creating a product. It encapsulates the cognitive strategies and
behaviours of people who are engaged in developing innovative solutions to
problems,oridentifyingnewopportunitiesinacomplexmarketplaceorecosystem.
Importantly,designthinkingoffersavaluablecounterpointto“scientificthinking”.
The former is typically characterised as user-centred, inventive and even produc-
tively disruptive, while the latter is regarded as methodical, logical and reductive.
Despite the simplicity of this characterisation, design thinking is fundamentally
concerned with developing creative or original responses. At a time when the
world’sheadlinesaredominatedbygrandchallengessuchasecologicaldilemmas,
economic crises and resource shortages, the capacity to develop innovative solu-
tions to problems and sometimes even re-define the problems has never been so
critical.
Becausedesignthinkingisprimarilyusedtosolve“real-world”,“ill-defined”or
“wicked” problems, it rarely follows a linear path to its destination. Instead, the
cognitive paths taken by designers are more likely to include spiralling off-ramps,
intricate intersections, elaborate cul-de-sacs and opportunistic shortcuts. Novice
designers,andthosefromdisciplinesmoreaccustomedtolinearprocesses,typically
strugglewithcomplex,real-worldproblems.Notonlyarethereamyriadoffactors
to consider, but the designer may also face the prospect that an optimal solution
does not exist. In a sense, the labyrinthine pathways that confront the novice
designernotonlydonotcontainclearsignpoststofreeways;theysometimesdon’t
evenleadtothedesireddestination.Incontrast,expertdesignersdevelopcognitive
strategiestoassistthemtonavigatebetweendifferentstartingpointsandalternative
destinations. They critically review and repeatedly question both the purpose
of their travels and possible routes to its conclusion. Expert designers expect to
navigatewindingpathsanddiscoverdeadendswhilelookingforhiddentunnelsor
fortuitous bridges to their journey’s end. They combine convergent and divergent
thinkingalongwithdeductiveandinductivereasoningtoproposecreativesolutions
which satisfy their goals.
v
vi Preface
Designers,whether novice orexpert, arenotwithout resources toassistthemto
navigate the maze of possibilities that is the design process. In the context of our
book, four of the most powerful resources for design thinking are computational
platforms, creative thinking, collaborative processes and diverse teams. The first
oftheseencompassesadvancedcomputationalsystemsanddigitalplatforms,which
is a new addition supporting design thinking with the recent advancements of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT). These digital design envi-
ronments support rapid modelling, testing and evaluation of alternative options.
They also enable the development of enhanced cognitive strategies and skills. The
second resource is arguably the reason design thinking is so sought after. Certain
cognitive strategies in design have been linked to creative responses or solutions.
Creativity is the capacity to find alternative, novel or surprising paths to a desti-
nation. The third resource arises from the realisation that designers rarely work
aloneandiscurrentlyalsoassociatedwiththewayscomputationalplatformscanbe
used to support collaboration and to leverage collective intelligence in the design
process. The cognitive operations of the crowd are increasingly being used to
develop collaborative solutions to problems. The final resource reflects on the fact
that most designers operate in teams, and some of the most effective teams are
diverse ones. The utilisation of digital tools and networked technologies has made
teamwork across geographical and cultural boundaries occurred more frequently
and readily. Whereas a cognitively homogeneous team will tend to blaze a
pre-determined trail to a finite destination, a multi-cultural team is more likely to
assess unconventional paths and question collective assumptions. It is not sur-
prising then that diverse teams are often linked to more creative solutions. There
are, however, challenges and opportunities for design thinking when different
cultures and languages are combined in the design process. Design is not a uni-
versal language and design thinking both shapes, and is shaped by, the language
used to communicate it.
Collectively, these themes in design thinking—computational, creative, collab-
orativeandcultural—definethescopeofthisbook.Thefirstthemesetsthecontext
for the book, and the latter three shape its content. The focus of this book is on
design thinking in digital or computational environments. Within this general
context, the book examines three themes: creativity, collaboration and culture.
ThecatalystforPartIinthisbookistheclaimthatcertaincognitivestrategiesor
approachestodesignthinkingaremore likelytoresultincreative outcomes. PartI
uses evidence derived from empirical studies to develop an understanding of the
way computational environments shape creative design thinking and may lead to
more inventive outcomes. Part II considers the cognitive dimensions of the oper-
ations of design teams, crowds and collectives. Collaborative design thinking has
received relatively limited attention in past research, and there are even fewer
frameworksavailabletounderstandthewaycollectiveintelligencemightoperatein
design. Drawing on a combination of a critical literature review, conceptual
frameworks and empirical evidence, Part II expands our knowledge of design
cognition in a collaborative context. Finally, Part III delves into territory that has
only rarely been considered by design researchers, the impact of culture on design
Preface vii
thinking. While, in a pragmatic sense, linguistic and cultural differences may dis-
rupt communication in a design team, at a more fundamental level they may also
shape the way people think. Part III contains some of the most advanced research
undertaken into this last dimension of design thinking.
This book has been written for designers, students and scholars who are inter-
ested in understanding the cognitive operations that occur in design thinking. The
primary methods used for this purpose are explained in Chap. 1, and experimental
resultsarepresentedthroughoutthebooktosupportdiscussionsaboutandreviews
of past research.
The authors of this book have backgrounds in architecture, interior design and
urban design, and all three have expertise in computational design. We have sep-
arately completed major design projects in different sectors of the economy and in
multiple countries. Significantly, we have different native languages (Korean,
EnglishandChinese,respectively)andhavealsoworkedthroughoutourcareersin
multi-lingualandmulti-culturalteams.Thesefactorshaveshapedourapproachesto
severalthemesinthisbookandourinterestsintheroleofcollaborationandculture
in design thinking.
Anadditionalfactorshapingthecontentofthisbookisthatweapproachdesign
thinking from a dual perspective: First, as qualified, experienced designers and
second, as researchers who have conducted extensive formal studies in the field.
This combination is not as common as readers might think. Many designers resist
theideathattheircognitiveprocessescanbestudied,insightsrevealedandpatterns
identified in experimental settings. Conversely, a surprising number of researchers
in the field of design thinking have only limited experience designing. This dual
perspective—designers and researchers—shapes the way we interpret several
themesinthisbook.Ithelpsusto“realitytest”ourownexperimentalresults,andto
beproductivelyscepticalaboutclaimsandtheories.Itmeans,forexample,thatwe
provideseveralalternativedefinitionsofkeyconcepts,ratherthanadvocatingfora
singularoremphaticone.Wealsodrawfromandacknowledgepastresearchinthe
field, and in other pertinent fields, even though we will not always agree with it.
Finally, the new empirical research presented in this book, along with much
oftheliteraturereviewedforit,wasdevelopedfromstudiesinthetraditionaldesign
fields of architecture, industrial design and interior design. These are core disci-
plinary backgrounds in design cognition research. Nevertheless, the lessons and
findings of the research in this book are applicable to design thinking across other
fields including engineering, business, management, science and the arts. This is a
key principle of the newdiscipline of design thinking that the lessons learnt in the
traditionaldesigndomainsoffersignificantopportunitiesfortheworld.Or,toreturn
to the analogy used earlier in this preface, design thinking can open up new
pathways to innovation, regardless of the disciplines or fields involved.
Sydney, Australia Ju Hyun Lee
Sydney, Australia Michael J. Ostwald
Adelaide, Australia Ning Gu
Acknowledgements
This book has evolved out of research undertaken over the last decade by the
authors,andithasbeensupportedbymanypeoplewhosecontributionswewishto
acknowledge. We would especially like to thank our colleagues and research
assistants,JiSukLee,MariaRoberts,ChrisBurns,KatieCadman,Dr.SueSherratt,
A/Prof. Julie Jupp, Prof. Richard Tucker, Prof. Anthony P. Williams, Prof. Jane
Burry, Prof. Mary L. Maher, Prof. Marc A. Schnabel, Prof. Mark Taylor, Prof. Mi
Jeong Kim and Prof. Robin Drogemuller.
Theideascontained inthisvolumewerealsoshapedbythegenerousresponses
of the editors and anonymous referees of the following journals, conferences and
book projects: International Journal of Technology and Design Education,
Architectural Science Review, International Journal of Design Creativity and
Innovation, International Journal of Architectural Computing, Collaboration and
Student Engagement in Design Education, Partners for Preservation, Design
Computing and Cognition (DCC), Computer-Aided Architectural Design Futures
(CAADFutures), Design Research Society (DRS), ACM Conference on Creativity
and Cognition, Architectural Science Association (ASA/ANZAScA) and
Computer-Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia (CAADRIA).
Some sections of this book are derived from data and manuscripts that were
previouslypublishedandhavebeensubstantially revised, expanded orupdatedfor
the present work. Specifically, Chap. 2 includes a revised section from two pub-
lications: Lee, Ju Hyun, Ning Gu, and Anthony P. Williams. 2014. Parametric
design strategies for the generation of creative designs. International Journal of
Architectural Computing 12 (3); Lee, Ju Hyun, Ning Gu, and Michael J. Ostwald.
2015. Creativity and parametric design? Comparing designer’s cognitive approa-
ches with assessed levels of creativity. International Journal of Design Creativity
andInnovation3(2). Chapter 4draws on material published inLee,JuHyun,and
Michael J. Ostwald. 2019. Measuring cognitive complexity in parametric design.
InternationalJournalofDesignCreativityandInnovation7(3).Chapter6revisesa
model and builds on materials published in Lee, Ju Hyun, and Ning Gu. 2019.
Historical Building Information Model (BIM)+: sharing, preserving and reusing
architectural design data. In Partners for Preservation: Advancing Digital
ix
x Acknowledgements
Preservation through Cross-community Collaboration, ed. Jeanne Kramer-Smyth.
London: Facet Publishing. Chapter 8 includes revised sections and extended ideas
originallypresentedinLee,JuHyun,MichaelJ.Ostwald,andNingGu.2016.The
language of design: Spatial cognition and spatial language in parametric design.
International Journal of Architectural Computing 14 (3). Chapter 9 revises and
expands material published in two publications: Lee, Ju Hyun, Ning Gu, and
Michael J. Ostwald. 2019. Cognitive and linguistic differences in architectural
design. Architectural Science Review 62 (3); Gu, Ning, Michael J. Ostwald, Ju
Hyun Lee, and Maria Roberts. 2019. Developing Pedagogical Solutions to
Linguistic and Cultural Barriers in Design Education Supporting Asian
Architecture Students. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Department of
Education and Training, Skills and Employment.
We gratefully acknowledge the support of the Australian Government
Department of Education and Training, Skills and Employment, UNSW Scientia
Fellowship Program, University of New South Wales, Sydney, and University of
South Australia. All of the design experiments reported in this book were the
subject of formal Human Research Ethics Approvals: No. H-20110313 and
No. H-20160219 (University of Newcastle).
Contents
1 Introduction: Exploring Design Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Defining Design Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Research into Design Thinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.3 The Digital Anthropocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Creativity, Collaboration and Culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Creativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 Collaboration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.3 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Research Method I: Protocol Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.1 Studying the Design Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.2 Protocol Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.3 Coding Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4 Research Method II: Expert Panel Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.1 Design Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.2 Evaluation Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Part I Creativity
2 Design Strategies and Creativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2 Study I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.1 Research Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.2 Coding Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.3 Sketch-Based Design Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3 Study II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.1 Parameter and Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3.2 Research Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
xi