Design Science Primer - Design Science Lab

40 Pages·2007·4.22 MB·English

Environmental Design Science Primer synergy. He stated a corollary to this law of
whole systems which is a fundamental
Conceptual Tools underpinning of design science: the known
behaviors of the whole system and the known
A conceptual tool is a concept used for behaviors of some of its parts makes it possible
patterning thoughts; it is often a metaphor that to discover or to predict the behavior of the
organizes information. For example, the remainder of the system’s parts. By putting
metaphor “Spaceship Earth” organizes our together what is known about the whole with
perceptions about our environment in an entirely what is known about some of its parts, it is
different way than just the word “earth.” In the possible to progressively understand more about
same way that methods are procedures for unknown parts. Since “problems” are parts of
patterning behavior, the conceptual tool is a larger systems, we can solve a single problem
method for organizing information, thought and only by understanding its relationship to other
eventually behavior. problems and to the larger environment.
The following design science conceptual tools In order to be comprehensive, any problem-
have been found to be effective for organizing solving endeavor should start with the “whole”
our information environment. The design and work towards the particular. There are many
scientist uses them to elucidate relationships conceptual “wholes” from which to begin
among existing information and to help produce subdividing: the universe, the Earth, all of
new information. These conceptual tools should humanity’s problems, all the variables of a
be viewed as a set of interrelated concepts to be particular problem, all of the resources of the
used as a whole. Earth. Local problems should be viewed in the
context of global problems for two reasons: first
1. STARTING WITH WHOLE SYSTEMS so that seemingly unpredictable aspects can be
understood by the behavior of the larger system,
The word synergy means the behavior of whole and second so that local solutions don’t create
systems unpredicted by the behaviors of the problems elsewhere in the larger system.
system’s parts taken separately. Synergy
describes a “law of whole systems” which first 2. SYSTEMS AND ENVIRONMENTS
began to be understood and accepted by
biologists who recognized that no matter how A system is a set of two or more interrelated
much could be learned about the component elements, which can be subdivided into parts.
molecular structures of a cell, there could be no The human body is a system comprised of
way to predict life. Similarly, no matter how organs, cells, molecules, atoms, etc. Anything
much is learned about the individual cells that you can describe is a system because anything
make up an organism, there would be no way of you can identify is, by nature, composed of a
predicting the behavior of a human being. It is plurality of components. The Earth is a system,
true of all systems in nature that each has unique you are a system, and I am a system. Everything
characteristics that cannot be determined only we can perceive is a system. Because the
from the isolation and analysis of its universe is the largest system we can describe,
components. In thinking about problems, Fuller anything else we define must be a sub-system
saw that analysis (the separating out of parts for that divides the universe into two fundamental
study) is the basis for all present-day planning parts: the system itself and its environment (the
and policymaking. It was clear that society had rest of the universe).
not yet understood the significance of the word
Environment to each must be and Einstein’s consciousness manifest in his
All that is theory. Fuller stated the following definition.
That isn’t me.
And Universe in turn must be Universe is the aggregate of all
All that isn’t me humanity’s all time consciously
And me. apprehended and communicated
experiences of the non-simultaneous and
-Buckminster Fuller partially overlapping energy events.
All systems whether ecosystem, techno systems, This means that our universe can be described as
or social systems, have an environment into the aggregate of our experiences. It is important
which they fit. Being able to clearly understand because Fuller’s new definition is not only
relationships between a system and its inclusive, it is understandable and useable in our
environment is important because systems are everyday lives. Because we are inside of our
always affected by their environment. The experience, our universe is our experience.
ecologist Howard Odum states this when he
says, “the only way to understand a system is to To each of us, our universe is the total of our
understand the system into which it fits.” experience. As we learn, our experience and
therefore our universe expands. When we
3. UNIVERSE communicate and share experiences, our
collective experience expands – ergo: universe
The word universe is the most comprehensive is the aggregate of all of our “consciously
and inclusive term in our language. It is a word apprehended and communicated experience.”
we use to describe everything. Albert Einstein, Our collective experience is continuously
in his theory of relativity, formulated a increasing but always finite, because it is the
comprehensive concept of universe by defining it aggregate of finite experiences (since the
in terms of energy. He said that universe is the experiences of each individual are finite, the
aggregate of all non-simultaneous and partially experiences of all individuals together must be
overlapping energy events. Everything, he finite). This view of a finite universe serves as
theorized, is energy, and the total energy is equal an “operational definition” which can be
to that which exists “associated” as Mass times practically employed. By Fuller’s definition, we
that disassociating as radiation – E=MC2. This are integrally part of universe – participants in its
definition takes into account the fact that evolution – not objective outside observers. The
although the universe is the largest possible design scientist is an individual who seeks to
system, it is not a single instantaneous event and consciously participate in expanding experience.
therefore cannot be unitarily experienced or
conceptualized. Fuller became interested in the If we are going to be able to take care of
idea that Einstein’s definition describes only the humanity, we must find out how most
physical universe and does not include Einstein’s economically and satisfactorily to
own thoughts and questions. The theory itself is organize our environment. Humanity
not energy but it certainly is part of the universe. must achieve the success it was designed
If universe is the most inclusive system we can to be. But we are at the point where
perceive, Fuller felt it important to have an there could be a stillbirth.
operational definition which would include both
Einstein’s description of the physical universe Nothing is so critical as birth, and
whether the world survives its birth into
an entirely new world and universe subsystems is transformed from a state of lower
relationship depends on our individual order and complexity to a state of higher order
integrity, not on that of political and complexity.
representatives.
Fuller points out that entropy and syntropy only
You and I are given hunger so that we and always coexist in a finite universe. This
will be sure to take on fuel and means that evolution in a finite but expanding
regenerate our bodies; we are given a universe is characterized by processes in which
drive to procreate so that humankind will energy is being released as entropic radiation as
be regenerated; we are given brains with well as being syntropically organized as matter
which to apprehend, store, and recall and life. For example, in the sun, atomic
information. We are also given minds structures are being broken down and energies
with which to discover metaphysical outwardly released. On the Earth, random
principles. The function of mankind is to radiation from the sun is being sorted, collected,
think, to discover and use principles. We and reorganized in new more complex forms.
are here to serve as local universe Plants collect the sun’s radiation and transform
information harvesters and as local that energy, through photosynthesis, into new
universe problem solvers employing molecular structures that in turn become part of
human mind’s unique access through even more complex living systems. Animals eat
science to some of the generalized plants and utilize that stored energy to grow
principles governing eternally more complex structures. Thus the evolution of
regenerative universe. We are going to life seems to be a process of continuously
have to exercise this responsibility within organizing energy. Nothing in nature remains
decades or perish. static; systems are always in flux and are
therefore either generally evolving (syntropically
- Buckminster Fuller collecting and organizing themselves) or they are
entropically degenerating.
4. HUMANITY’S FUNCTION IN UNIVERSE
Humanity is part of the evolving syntropic
The Law of Conservation of Energy states that function of universe. If, in light of our
energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can expanding effects on the rent of the Earth, we
only be converted from one form to another. We fail to carry out this syntropic function, we
know that the physical energy universe is in become responsible for possible breakdowns of
constant transformation and that the two most the ecological integrity of the Earth. The design
general characteristics of this process are scientist recognizes that constructive change
“entropy” and “syntropy.” means finding ways of better organizing our
matter-energy environment to better support life.
The physicist Heinrich Boltzman observed that
when energy converts from one form to another 5. GENERALIZED PRINCIPLES
or moves from one place to another in a local
subsystem of universe, some energy is lost from Generalized principles are laws of nature. The
that subsystem. A process is entropic when a word “generalized” means behaviors that hold
subsystem of universe is transformed from a true in every special case experience.
state of higher order and complexity to a state of
lower order and complexity. Conversely, a Humans monitor their environment using their
process is syntropic when a subsystem or set of senses and store the collected information in
their individual brains. As the number of moon on oceans and atmosphere, the Earth can
experiences increase, patterns become apparent be viewed as a relatively closed system.
which seem to disclose principles common to all
these experiences. Science observes and records The conception of Earth as a spaceship helps us
these “generalized” behaviors that appear to hold to organize our thinking about ourselves. The
true in every special case. When new experience metaphor can help to make us aware that we are
contradicts old observations, principles must inherently linked to the well-being and effective
either be restated to accommodate this operation of this tiny ship; like astronauts, we are
information, or entirely new principles must be responsible for the maintenance of the craft that
formulated. protects and supports our lives.
Newton observed that when objects fall and are The idea that humanity is responsible for its
pulled toward the center of the Earth, their mass action is fundamental to design science. Since
is being attracted to this greater mass of the Spaceship Earth did not come with an operating
planet. Further, this attraction could be observed manual, our future depends on our ability and
between all objects which have mass. As he willingness to employ our know-how in
experimented, he formulated a principle – the designing the best possible solutions to the
Law of Mass Attraction – that would describe problems that confront us. The design scientist
similar behaviors in Nature. Examples of other is aware of this responsibility and acts on it. The
Generalized Principles are: Synergy, the Second Earth is a “whole “ from which to begin a
Law of Thermodynamics, and the Law of systematic design science process.
Conservation of Energy.
The following diagram describes the functional
Principles (or laws) that have been discovered by relationships between various processes and
science are potentially useful to the design their interaction with their environment. The
scientist. For example, science’s progressive outer circle of the diagram represents the
understanding of the laws of aerodynamics and ongoing ecological cycles of our biosphere.
chemistry have been permitted the design of
increasingly better air and space craft – from The second largest circle represents the various
Kitty Hawk to lunar excursion modules. All industrial/technological processes that can be
tools and artifacts are special case reductions of broken down for examination. The third circle
generalized laws of nature. The design scientist represents the internal biological metabolic
consciously employs new scientific functions of people. The diagram shows how
breakthroughs and new integrations of scientific raw materials and energy are extracted from the
information of the law of nature in solving Ecological Context and converted into useful
problems. forms to provide increased life support services
for people, (food, shelter, education, etc.).
6. SPACESHIP EARTH People, in turn, input their energy and intellect
into running and improving the external
Earth is a small automated, spherical spaceship metabolic system. Human waste is either
orbiting rotatively at 66,000 miles per hour returned directly to the ecological context or to
around the sun, which in turn is on its own the external metabolic system to be further
course at 6 kilometers per second within the processed.
galactic nebula. With the exceptions of radiation
from the sun and the gravitational effects of the

7. EXTERNAL METABOLIC SYSTEM diversity of processes that constitute the Earth’s
biosphere, other than those that are directly
Technology is the primary means by which designed and manipulated by man (i.e., hydrogen
humans provide for their physical needs and and carbon cycles, animal migrations, weather
adapt to changing environmental conditions. patterns, etc.).
Like other species, human adapt by making
internal biological changes over long periods of The ecological context can be defined as all of
time in order to accommodate new conditions, nature that is not part of humanity’s external
but the accelerated use of technology and metabolic system. The ecological context also
industrialization in the last two hundred years includes humanity’s own internal metabolic
represents an apparently new manifestation of systems as part of the ecosystems of the planet.
the evolutionary process. Humans existed and exchanged materials with
the other systems long before the development of
In addition to adapting by genetic evolution, society’s external metabolic system. Therefore,
humans reorganize their environment itself to “people” is included as a subsystem of the
better support their lives. They take energy and ecological context in which humanity as a
materials from the environment and reorganize biological species is studied.
them into tools that extend their ability to
survive. For example, housing provides an Resources are the food of our external metabolic
external skin that permits us to function in system. They are taken into the system (inputs)
climates where we otherwise could not survive. and used to build, repair, and maintain the
Computers store information and do many system as well as produce all the life-supporting
routine computing functions that free people’s goods and services that are utilized by humanity
minds for other more creative tasks. (outputs) such as food, clothing, shelter,
education, transportation, communication,
We can view our collective technological life- recreation, and health care. All of the services
support systems as an external metabolic system and products that support our lives are paid for
that, like our bodies, takes in needed resources, with resources. We can subdivide resources into
processes them and utilizes them for its several types:
maintenance and evolution. Similarly, unutilized
wastes from the external metabolic system are Renewable resources are energy and materials
passed out into its environment. The external that are continuously replenished by nature at a
metabolic system functions to serve the various rate the same as or greater than that of the rate of
individuals and collective needs of humans just use. Wood is an example of a renewable
as our internal metabolic systems service the life resource. Solar energy is an enormous
support needs of the billions of cells which make renewable energy source since the external
up our bodies. External metabolics is an organic metabolic system presently takes in less than
process and as such provides insight into the 1/100 of 1% of the solar energy which the Earth
continuous interdependence of all the receives each day. All biologicals (animals and
components and processes of our technological plants) are renewable or harvestable resources.
and social systems. These include textiles, forest products, fish and
agricultural products.
The ecological context is the larger system into
which the external metabolic system fits. It is Even though we have seen that renewable
the environment to the external metabolic resources by definition are those that can be
system. “Ecological context” describes the regenerated by nature at a rate approximating or
greater than our use, renewable resources can be important as a source of energy. Where once
depleted through our mismanagement or lack of labor was the only direct method of doing
planning. Perhaps the most dramatic example of needed work, now a single machine can do the
this mismanagement of renewable resources is work of a thousand men. Automation has further
overharvesting of fish in the oceans. There is decreased the need for human labor. Yet, as we
every reason to believe that a massive, sustained are becoming obsolete as direct energy sources,
harvest can be yielded by the oceans indefinitely, the need for the intelligent use of our mindpower
but only if care is taken to 1) not surpass the is increasing. Design science is a method by
critical limit beyond which the rate of which intellect can be reinvested.
reproduction is slower than the harvest and 2)
not remove an imbalanced harvest. Removing Land is also a finite resource that needs to be
large quantities of a single species without intelligently planned and managed. As
consideration of the natural food chains and population grows, our need for space to live,
balance of nature in the ocean ecosystem will recreate, and cultivate grows. Our impacts on
permanently damage the availability of future the Earth also grow with our expansion, so
supplies. Natural ecosystems are so complex careful planning to minimize our abuse is
that we may not have the capability to reestablish essential. The way we use land also affects the
balances once they are disrupted. way we use other resources. For example, urban
sprawl means less land for agriculture or
Non-renewable resources are resources that are recreation. Food must be transported farther
replenished by nature at such a slow rate that, for which means more energy is required. More
all practical purposes, we can assume that when energy is also required because communities use
existing reserves are exhausted, there will be no more for personal transportation, heating and
more. Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural other services.
gas are examples of non-renewable resources
that take hundreds of millions of years to replace. Wastes are the unused by-products of our
If not properly “melted down” and recycled, external metabolic system. What are normally
primary metals and minerals are also non- referred to as “wastes” and “pollution” are really
renewable, because concentrated reserves in the valuable resources that are being thrown away
earth are limited. On non-renewable resources: because of lack of comprehensive planning and
It is important to understand that with intelligent design. Wastes can be found in many forms.
management and recycling, non-renewable
resources can be renewed, and with Vast quantities of potentially useable energy are
mismanagement, renewable resources can lost from our external metabolic system as waste
become non-renewable. heat that is released and not collected from
intense industrial processes for reuse.
Human resources can be classified in two ways
– Labor and Know-How. Labor is the time and Materials are lost and dispersed into the
energy (muscle power) which people invest in atmosphere in the form of air pollution from
the production of goods and services, and Know- smokestacks. They are also released into the
How is intellect which has been learned from Earth’s water systems as liquid and solid waste.
previous experience and which is used to Human resources are wasted through poverty,
redesign and improve the system. The malnutrition, bureaucracy, job featherbedding
introduction and widespread use of large and accidents which prevent this most valuable
mechanical engines and fossil fuels to power resource from being re-invested in activities
them has made human labor dramatically less
which could more effectively increase our communications satellite now outperforms
wealth. 175,000 tons of transoceanic cable. This
principle of “doing more with less” is
Life support represents the products and fundamental to design science problem-solving.
services that maintain the life needs of people The most important aspect of this “more with
and permit survival and exploration under an less” concept is that it offers a way to take care
increasingly wider range of environmental of all of humanity’s evolving needs with
conditions. Humanity’s External Metabolic increasingly less resources per person.
System exists to produce these products and
services. Life support can be generally The Earth’s resources, which now adequately
categorized as: support 45 to 55% of humanity, need to be
employed to support 100% of humanity. The
Food concept of doing “more with less” also furnishes
Shelter the design scientist with a standard by which
Health and Medical Care strategies and solutions may be evaluated.
Education
Recreation 9. WEALTH
Transportation
Communications Wealth is the capacity of a society to deal with
present and future contingencies. It is the
8. DOING MORE WITH LESS measurable degree to which we have rearranged
our environment so that it is able to support as
Fuller proposed as early as 1936 that human many lives, for as long as possible, in as many
evolution could be charted by our ability to do conditions, at a high standard of living. All
more with less. He became interested in the idea existing political and economic systems on the
that our growing understanding of systems in Earth assume that the basis of wealth is the
nature increases our ability to get more useful accumulation of capital (physical resources) and
units of life-support for more people with less that there are not enough of these resources to go
investment of resources per unit. If our around. Because traditionally, survival belonged
technological systems are a reflection of our to the “fittest,” competition for these scarce
understanding of the principles of nature, then resources often degenerated into war. Neither
waste and inefficiency in our use of resources, politicians nor scientists have seriously asked the
disregard for our environment, and neglect of question, “Is it possible to meet the needs of all
impoverished populations, are reflections of of humanity without destroying the environment
ignorance. and without any human profiting at the expense
of another?” Design science is not concerned
Because we do not learn less, each time with different ways of distributing “not enough.”
resources are employed to do a given task, It is concerned with developing new ways of
processes can often be designed or redesigned so providing enough by doing more with less. This
that more is accomplished with the same amount approach brings a new perspective to the debate
of resources. For example, the first telephone between economists who advocate continued
wires carried two signals simultaneously. More economic growth in the present manner and
advances technology enables wires to become environmentalists who recognize the limits of the
thinner and thinner while carrying more and biosphere and who advocate stopping growth.
more signals until it became possible for wires to Neither alternative seems acceptable because
be eliminated altogether. A one-quarter ton each means that there will always be “haves” and
“have-nots” in the world or that the Earth might of design science strategies or other proposed
not be able to support life in the future. solutions to current problems.
Design science assumes that real wealth is 10. TRIMTAB
generated not by the quantity of resources that
can be accumulated, but by the quality of their Trimtab is a word taken from the vocabulary of
use. The more intelligently we employ designers and pilots of aircraft and ships. A
resources, the more wealth they will yield. Trimtab is a device on the trailing edge of an
Fuller has observed that the only thing we have airplane wing or ship’s rudder. It is very small
identified in Universe that has no apparent limits but it is responsible for changing the course of
for growth is our intellect. Therefore, it is the airplane or ship because it takes advantage of
logical that the design scientist assumes that the dynamic principles operating on the vessel
wealth can continuously increase even though by doing the most with least effort. When the
the total quantity of physical resources may not. Trimtab moves, it creates a low pressure area
This can occur if we continuously find ways of that pulls the larger rudder to one side, in turn
better and better reinvestment of our know-how pulling the trailing end of the ship around and
to get more with less. changing its course. It is, in effect, the rudder of
the rudder.
This notion of wealth contradicts the existing
economic assumption first stated by Adam Smith Trimtab is an important concept in design
that the best way to maximize the total social science. It involves using generalized principles
wealth is for each individual to maximize his/her to determine the set of actions that can be taken
own. The design scientist is aware of the to change the course of a larger system. In
fundamental interdependence of humans with design science, the Trimtab metaphor is used to
each other and with their environment. Since describe an artifact specifically designed and
intellect is the basis of wealth, humans who placed in the environment at such a time and in
suffer brain damage from malnutrition decrease such a place where its effects would be
our collective potential wealth because their full maximized thereby affecting the most
intellectual potential is lost to society; “I am advantageous change with the least resources,
better off when you are better off, ‘not,’ I am time, and energy invested.
better off when you are worse off.”
11. MAKE VISIBLE THE INVISIBLE
Human time is an important resource which
Fuller divides into two groups: coerced time, Making the invisible visible is achieved by
which is the time an individual spends doing graphically decelerating events which occur to
those tasks essential to his/her survival (eating, swiftly to be seen or understood, and/or by
sleeping, getting food, etc.); and reinvestible accelerating the events which occur too slowly
time, which is the time we have free to reinvest for our perception. The following are methods
in thinking, learning, and designing. The design by which the invisible can be made more visible:
scientist is concerned with minimizing coerced Trending is a technique for taking resource data,
time and maximizing the total reinvestible time facts and statistics and plotting them through
of humans by finding ways of meeting the most time. This permits the design scientist to
essential needs, and by providing effective perceive patterns of change occurring too rapidly
alternative ways for people to use their or too slowly to be evident by direct observation.
reinvestible time. In this respect, the concept of Hierarchical organizing is the process of
wealth can be used to evaluate the relative merits arranging data with respect to its size, shape,
form, magnitude, complexity, or any other The ecologist, Aldo Leopold wrote, “ethics is
quality it might possess. Location/distribution awareness of independence.” Design science is
mapping is a technique for displaying data on also based on the assumption that each
maps to demonstrate the shape, size, pattern individual is better off when every individual is
and/or location of events and their relationship to better off, and that it is the responsibility of those
their environment. This method permits who understand this principle to act on it.
recognition of special relationships that might
not be found in charts. A traditional course of action taken by people
interested in constructive change is political
The Dymaxion Map is the most accurate type of reform. People organize themselves to convince
flat map that can be used for the display of others of the necessity of change and to elect
information. If you consider map projections as politicians to carry out those changes, or to
a form of objective display you can see that a encourage political revolution. The design
distorted base for geographical data can lead to scientist realizes that change is the norm and that
distorted or erroneous problem definitions. nature is continually changing our environment.
Buckminster Fuller’s Dymaxion Map has two The important question is not whether changes
significant virtues that distinguish it from all will have to be made but rather, “when the
other maps. First, it is the only flat projection of problems grow more critical, will there be
the Earth’s surface that has no visible distortion. sufficiently developed alternatives to turn to?”
In comparison to the commonly used Mercater For example, the design scientist recognizes that
projection which distorts the Earth’s surface by no matter what energy policy politicians adopt,
as much as 80%, near the poles, the Dymaxion petroleum reserves will only last 20 to 50 years.
Projection has less than 2% distortion. This Design science, rather than lobbying for
map, when folded along the triangular sections, recognition of this fact, seeks to design practical
forms an icosahedronal globe. Second, it is the energy alternatives. The task of the design
only projection that shows the Earth’s landmass scientist is to take the initiative and design
as continuous and connected. It provides a alternative solutions, to demonstrate the
comprehensive picture with only minimal breaks practicality and need for them and to place them
in the continental contours. in the environment where they can be used.
12. THE DESIGN INITIATIVE Our present education system trains individuals
with skills in design and the scientific method.
People concerned with the quality of our Professionals in all fields acquire these skills,
environment need to maintain a global then open offices and wait for clients to come to
perspective while applying the design process to them with jobs. The jobs are tasks that the client
problems in specific local areas. Solutions wants done in order to further his own interests.
involve bringing this holistic perspective to bear Design scientists do not wait for outside clients,
on one’s immediate environment. It is one thing or use their skills in this way. The concept of
to be able to demonstrate that it is design initiative means that the individual
technologically possible to meet the basic attempts to obtain the most comprehensive
physical needs of humanity, but it is another to perspective possible of human problems, to
plan and take actions that will increase the determine what needs to be done (which no one
freedom and quality of life for oneself and else is doing), to alleviate these problems and to
others. set out to do it. Taking the design initiative
means creating jobs to be done, not filling jobs
that don’t.