Design dictionary : perspectives on design terminology

448 Pages·2008·1.799 MB·English

by  Michael Erlhoff, Tim Marshall, Board of International Research in Design

MichaelErlhoff
TimMarshall
(Eds.)
Design
Dictionary
Perspectives on Design Terminology
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Foreword BIRD
Theunderstandingofdesigningeneralandthestructureofscientificresearchindesign
inevitablyleadstodiscussionsofthecentralcategoriesfordesign.Constructivedebate
andstrugglesforacceptancefuelsuchaprocess—aprocessthat,asasignoffruitful
furtherrefinement,canneverbecompletelyfinished.Itiswellknownthatsuchadevel-
opment,especiallyindesign,cannotbeaddressedwithoutobstaclesandindeeddissent.
Evenwithinasingleculturalorlinguisticrealm,thepositionsaresupposedlyirreconcil-
able.Anyundertakingthatattemptstocreateunderstandingacrossculturalandlinguis-
ticbordersisthatmuchmoreambitious.
Itis,afterall,oneoftheprinciplesofBIRD’sworktopromoteunderstandingofimportant
design categories and conceptsinternationally. The publication of acategoricaldictio-
narythusnaturallysuggesteditself.ThemembersofBIRDagreethattherecanbediffer-
entapproachestosuchaproject;noapproach,description, orexplanationwillremain
undisputed.Andjustastherecanbenounambiguousandconclusivedefinitionofterms
like“designresearch,”forexample—because,verymuchinkeepingwiththeessenceof
designandbyallmeansindebtedtodifferentapproachestoexplanation,theyarecon-
stantlytransforming—adictionaryofdesigncanbenomore,andnoless,thanthebegin-
ningofaprocessofunderstanding.
The Design Dictionary that Michael Erlhoff and Tim Marshall have compiled, which is
beingpublishedsimultaneouslyinGermanandEnglish,isanimportantstepinthiscon-
text.Theeditorshavemanagedtoattracttotheirprojectauthorsfromallovertheworld
whohavepresentedtheircontributionsfromavarietyofperspectivesandwithanexcel-
lentgraspoftheirsubjectsthatwillenrichthediscussionofdesignterms.Weareexpect-
ingittoprovokecontradiction—andindeedwedesirethat.BoththemembersofBIRD
andtheeditorswillwelcomethatinthespiritofenliveningthediscussion.
Through its various publications, BIRD presents important positions in the context of
designresearch.TheDesignDictionarybelongstoaseriesofpublicationsofimportant
referenceworksinbooksandanthologiesintheoriginallanguageand/orintranslationin
ordertocollectmaterialsandpointsofreferencethatcanenrichtheinternationaldis-
cussionofthedevelopmentofdesignresearch.ForthemembersofBIRDthepointisto
emphasizethediversityandheterogeneityofexistingpositions,tomakethecontroversial
characterofalivingdebateonresearchclear,andtostimulateandpromotefurtherdis-
cussion.
BoardofInternationalResearchinDesign,BIRD
5
A DICTIONARY BEGINS WHEN IT NO LONGER
GIVES THE MEANINGS OF WORDS, BUT THEIR
TASKS.
GeorgesBataille
6
Design in a Dictionary
TheEditors’Comments
TheideatopublishtheDesignDictionarywasbasedonourbeliefthattherewasacom-
pellingneedtomorefirmlyestablishashareddesignlanguagewithin,across,andbeyond
themultipleanddisparatedesignpractices.Inotherwords,thebookisintendedtofacil-
itate communication, discussion, and debate between the various groups that have a
stakeinthestateofdesigntoday,whethertheyidentifythemselvesasdesigners,manu-
facturers,managers,marketers,educators,orscholars.Itisalsointendedtoassistthe
general interested public—the users of design—in navigating the complex and varied
objectives, methodologies, and technologies that are used to create the products and
systemstheyuseintheirlives.
Wegaveseriousthoughttothelinguisticcategoriesandterminologythatunderpindesign
discoursetoday.Thatsaid,itbecameclearwhileworkingonthebookthatwehadomitted
anumberofvaluableterms.Thisfactwillundoubtedlybethesubjectofcritiquebyre-
viewersandreadersalike,andweexpectthattheprojectwillprovokeasmanyquestions
asitwillanswers.Weencouragethisandonlyaskthatyouhelpusidentifythesegapsso
thatwemayincludeworthysuggestionsinthenextedition.
Languageisofcoursealwaysinflux,anddesignitselfisahighlydynamicdomain.Con-
sequently,thelanguageofdesigncanbeinfuriatinglybroadandslippery,oftenevolving
through a highly verbal discourse. This may account for why there have been few at-
temptstoestablishadesigndictionarytodate,andalsowhythisonedoesnotaspireto
anydefinitiveordogmatic“truth.”Instead,wehaveendeavoredstylisticallytobalancea
dictionarytonewiththeindividual,uniquelyauthoredvoicesandperspectivesthatmake
designsuchanexcitingandvibrantpractice.
TheprojectbecameevenmoreofanadventurethemomentwedecidedtopublishEnglish
andGermanlanguageeditions.Thisnotonlyintroducedthearduoustaskofcomparing
GermanandEnglishterminology,butalsocomplicatedissuesofcontextbaseduponwhat
wefoundtobesignificantdifferencesbetweenAnglo-SaxonandGermanicphilosophical
frameworks.Italsomeans—orsowehope—thatthereadersofthedictionarywillap-
proachthebookfromvastlydifferentculturaloutlooks.Consequently,itwasessential—
alsochallengingandultimatelyinspiring—toinviteauthorsofdifferingbackgroundsand
culturestocontribute.Asaresult,thedictionaryisnotonlyheterogeneousinstyle,but
also documents various trends and, in certain cases, contradictions within the global
design discourse. The depth and diversity of these perspectives will become evident if
younavigateyourwaythroughthebookasdesigned,usingtheindicatedcross-references
toguideyoualongcertainlexicalpathways.
WethankmanypeopleforcontributingtotheDesignDictionary.Inparticular,weexpress
our deep debt of gratitude to the authors, who wrote excellent texts on very complex
subjectsunderconsiderabletimepressure.WethankBIRDpublishingconsultantsand
thepeopleatBirkh(cid:228)userandSpringer-Verlag,whodidnotalwayshavesuchaneasytask
dealingwiththeeditors.
7
We also must express our very great thanks to the expert and wonderful editorial and
production assistants and in particular, Jen Rhee, Dorothea Facchini, Dirk Porten, and
ArneWill(cid:216)e.
Wehopethereadersofthispublicationwillfindthefollowingdialogueasexcitingand
inspiringaswedo!
MichaelErlhoff
TimMarshall
8
A
ACOUSTICS > SoundDesign
ADDED VALUE Addedvalueisanimplicitideaofworththatextendsbeyondthe
functionalrequirementsorbasicuseofaproductorserviceto
satisfy(>)need.Addedvaluescommunicateessentialinforma-
tionaboutacompanyor(>)brand’sculture,values,andattitude
toconsumers,andarethereforecrucialtohowtheyperceiveand
respondonanemotionalleveltobrandedproducts.
Forexample:aluxurysportscar’saddedvaluemaybetobuild
maleegooraffordtheuserparticularstatuswithinacommuni-
ty;thepurchaseofcertainbrandsoforganicproducemaycome
with the added value of promoting environmental (>) sustain-
ability or animal rights protection; and wearing clothing from
sweatshop-laborfreefashionlabelshastheaddedvalueofsup-
portingfairtradepractices.Itisparticularlyinterestingtonote
howaproduct’saddedvaluemightappealtoaconsumer’sper-
sonalvalues,andinspirehimorhertobemoreenvironmentally
orsociallyresponsible(> Ethics).Becauseaddedvaluenotonly
promotes but encourages consumers to bond with brands, it
is highly influential in product differentiation and consumer
decisionmaking.Asaresult,theconceptofaddedvalueisbe-
comingincreasinglyimportantwithinoversaturatedmarketsin
particular.KSP |
> Advertisement,Branding,Value
ADVERTISEMENT Afifteenth-centurydefinitionof“advertisement”as“theturning
of the mind to anything: attention, observation, heed” still
Advertisements are representations designed seemsappropriateforthetwenty-firstcenturywhengainingat-
toaffectandinformamarketthroughknowl- tentionforone’sproductshasbecomeexceedinglydifficultwith
edge ofits needs and wants, over a formof keen competition in most product categories, mature product
mediatedchannelsthatresultinanexchange lifecycles,andlittleproductdifferentiation.
ofvalues.
In the fifteenth century, advertisements were used in the crea-
tionofshopsigns,thebillboardsofthetime.Sincefewpeople
were able to read, symbols and signs represented the product,
service, skill, or craft within the store. Advertisements were in
the form of announcements such as stagecoach schedules or
classifiedadsseekinganexchangeofinformation.Media con-
sisted of outdoor advertisements which were posted in city
centers, personal selling from wagons, and crafted signage of
thedayusedbymerchantstoannouncetheproductstheywere
selling.
11
Attheonsetofthetwenty-firstcentury,anageburstingwithnew
technologiesandalmostunlimitedchoice,productsseekdiffer-
entiationandso(>)brandinghasbecomeanessentialformof
signagetoconnecttheproductmorefirmlywiththeconsumer.
The difference between products is no longer inherent in the
product and its attributes, but in the benefits that accrue for
the consumers when they purchase the product. Representa-
tionsintheformofsymbols,signs,icons,andimageryattempt
toattractthetargetedconsumerthroughaprismoftheindivid-
ual’sownculture,andtheirlinguistic,social,andpersonaliden-
tity.
An advertisement is usually developed under the auspices of
a marketing department and a creative team. The marketing
group investigates and researches the market and develops a
statisticalandlifestyleprofileofthepotentialtargetmarket,of
thecompetitionandtheproduct’s“uniquesellingproposition”
(> USP).Thisisthenpresentedtothemembersofthecreative
teamintheformofacreativeplatform.Typically,creativedesign
fostersandmaintainstheconnectionbetweenproductand(>)
brand,andadvertisementandconsumer.Thegoalisforthecon-
sumer to recall, immediately and in detail, the brand and its
perceivedattributeswhenpresentedwithanadvertisement.
Members of thecreative team, knownintheindustry as“crea-
tives,” will use design methodologies such as (>) semiotics to
convey meaning through sign or (>) symbol. However, aspira-
tionalstylesofadvertisingleadtonewsignifiersastheconsumer
becomes part of the designed experience. Visual imagery with
littletextisneededfortheadvertisementsinaCorona(>)cam-
paign,forinstance,inwhichtheviewerlooksthroughawindow
toasun-drenchedbeachandtwobeachchairsfacingtheocean.
Theonlysignofaproductisatonesidewheretwofrostedbeers
await the beachgoers. The brand invites the viewer to step in,
pullupachair,andbepartoftheexperience.
Advertisementsarepartofthebrandingprocessandareseldom
designed to stand alone; rather, they are intended to become
part of a continuing conversation with the listener, viewer, or
readerastheyaregoingabouttheireverydaylives(> Corporate
Identity).Themostimportantaspectofthisprocessisidentify-
ingwiththetargetmarket(> TargetGroup)anddesigningame-
dianetworkthatcontinuestosustaintheconsumerexperience.
Withtheexponentialincreaseinnumbersofpeopleandprod-
ucts over the centuries, new (>) information industries have
grown to collect market data that can then be analyzed and
usedinadvertisingdesign.Theabilitytoknow“themarket”for
aproducthasbecomecomplex,requiringresearchthatnotonly
revealswhereconsumerslive,butwhyandhowtheylive—thatis
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their(>)valuesand(>)lifestyles.Today,fragmentationofaudi-
enceandmediaduetoanincreasinglytechnologicalandmobile
society has opened new avenues in (>) market research. Data-
basemanagement,alongwithothersciencesasvastaseconom-
icsandhistoryandasdiverseasanthropologyandneuroscience,
hasemergedandjoinedthefieldsofdemography,ethnography,
andpsychology,amongothers,tohelponedefinetargetmarkets
andunderstandtheirneedsandwants.Sincethe1990s,compa-
nieshavebeen usinganewformofbrandresearch,Coolhunt-
ing, to seek out emerging (>) trends. The original goal was to
make observations and predictions about fashion or design
from the street in order to enhance a brand’s “coolness” or
“buzz.”Companieshavealsobeguntoemployyoungundercover
scoutsfromamongtheirtargetdemographicstoprovideintelli-
gence, test products among selected segments and persuade
adoption through peer networks. Most recently, companies
havebegundataminingblogsandusingthemas“tuningforks”
toanalyzetheelectronicmusingsanddesiresofmillions.These
newhuntersarebecomingthesource,themedium,andtherep-
resentation of brand communications, all of which can now
changeinananosecond.
Whereapplicable,advertisersuse(>)needormotivationalplat-
formstodesignandextendappealsandexecutiontechniquesin
the development of advertisements. Abraham Maslow’s “Hier-
archy of Needs” is the best known of these platforms. It is de-
pictedasapyramidconsistingoffivelevels:thefourlowerlevels
aregroupedtogetheras“deficiencyneeds”associatedwithphys-
iological needs, while the top level is termed “growth needs”
associated with psychological needs. While deficiency needs
must be met, growth needs are continually shaping behavior.
The basic concept is that the higher needs in this hierarchy,
such as the needs associated with social recognition, self es-
teem,andactualization,onlycomeintofocusoncealltheneeds
that are lower down the pyramid, such as physiological and
safetyneeds,aremainlyorentirelysatisfied.Inaffluentsocieties,
promotionalappealsaremostlybasedonsocialandself-esteem
needs, which emphasize luxury and recognition by others. The
goalofanadvertisementistodesignpersuasivechoicesthatin-
volveeitheremotionaland/orrationalapproaches.
Creativesusedifferenthierarchicalformstohelpdesigntheap-
peals and the structure of an advertisement. The first is the
Foote,Cone&Belding(FCB)planningmodel.Thisisafour-part
gridformedbytwointersectingaxesthatexaminesproductand
consumer relationships. From here, creatives try to determine
thepromotionalplatformdefinedbythedimensionsofthinking
and feeling and the level of involvement required from the
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consumer in purchase decisions. Cars, new homes, and other
complex products are defined as high involvement/thinking
products that require an informative strategy compared with
lower involvement/emotional products such as food, clothing,
andconfectionary.
Valueattributesgiventoproductsareoftenembeddedwithinthe
developmentofacopyplatform.Peopleuseobjectstosetthem-
selves apart from others (> Added Value). Examples are luxury
fashions or automobiles that promise to confer a special status
and class with ownership. The Virgin brand has been endowed
withthepersonalitytraitsofitsowner,RichardBranson—adven-
turous,individualistic,andnonconforming.Volkswagenattempts
tohumanizeandpersonalizetheirRabbitbrandwithcampaigns
suchasthebirdsandbees“Multiply”commercialand,ofcourse,
theclassicBeetleads.Indeed,personalizationisthebuzzwordof
thetwenty-firstcentury.Companiesoftenchoosecelebritiestobe
their spokespeople—to represent the brand and to imbue the
productsofthatbrandwiththequalitiesseentobeintrinsicto
thatprojectedcharacter. Thetwo most important determinants
of celebritysuccess are, firstly, the basic promise that the prod-
uct/brand will benefit from its association with that celebrity,
and,secondly,therelevanceandcredibilityofthecelebrity.
Asecondplanningmodelusedbydesignerswhenconvertingthe
strategy and the “unique differential” or “big idea” into an ac-
tualadvertisementiscalledtheCreativePyramid.Thishelpsfo-
cusoncopyandartanditsabilitytomoveconsumersthrough
cognitiveor“thinking”stagestoaffectiveor“feeling”stagesof
advertising. Whether the medium is print or electronic, the
samestructureisusedwithinthevisualandcopyfield;thead-
vertisementseekstogaininterest,createdesire,andclosewith
anactionsuchasasale.
Thecreativeprocessisnotfinisheduntilamediumischosento
carrythemessagetotheenduserorconsumer.Advertisements
arecalledcommercialsontelevisionandradioandaredefined
bytheirtime—fifteen,thirty,orsixtyseconds.Othermediasuch
asnewspapersandmagazineshavelongerlivesbutlackthemul-
timedia advantages of broadcast. Billboards and transit adver-
tisements are designed as support media within advertising
campaignsandalloftheaboveareconsiderednon-personalme-
dia.Directpersonalformsaremail,telephone,in-personrepre-
sentation, and forms of digital interaction such as e-mail and
rich media channels among others. More recently, a prolifera-
tion of advertisements has crossed the editorial boundaries
drawnbetweencommercialandfactualadvertising.Theycome
disguisedineditorialformatssuchasvideonewsreleases,info-
mercials,advertorials,docudramas,andvariousformsofprod-
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