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Design dictionary : perspectives on design terminology PDF

448 Pages·2008·1.799 MB·English
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MichaelErlhoff TimMarshall (Eds.) Design Dictionary Perspectives on Design Terminology Birkh(cid:228)user Basel·Boston·Berlin Thecoverdesignwasrealisedusingeffectpigment Iriodin(cid:24)123BrightLusterSatinproducedbyMerckKGaA. DesignConceptBIRD:ChristianRiisRuggaber,Formal Satz:Bertschi&MessmerAG,Basel Typefaces:Akkurat,Arnhem Editorialassistance:AngelaMarshall,JenRhee Copyediting:IngridBell TranslationfromGermanintoEnglish: LauraBruce,StevenLindberg LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2007939897 Bibliographicinformationpublished bytheDeutscheNationalbibliothek TheDeutscheNationalbibliothekliststhispublicationin theDeutscheNationalbibliografie;detailedbibliographic dataareavailableontheInternetathttp://dnb.ddb.de. Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.Allrightsarereserved, whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned, specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,re-use ofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductionon microfilmsorinotherways,andstorageindatabases. Foranykindofuse,permissionofthecopyrightowner mustbeobtained. (cid:23)2008Birkh(cid:228)userVerlagAG Basel·Boston·Berlin P.O.Box133,CH-4010Basel,Switzerland PartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia Alsoavailable: Germanedition(ISBN:978-3-7643-7738-0) Printedonacid-freepaperproducedfromchlorine-freepulp. TCF¥ PrintedinGermany ISBN:978-3-7643-7739-7 987654321 www.birkhauser.ch Foreword BIRD Theunderstandingofdesigningeneralandthestructureofscientificresearchindesign inevitablyleadstodiscussionsofthecentralcategoriesfordesign.Constructivedebate andstrugglesforacceptancefuelsuchaprocess—aprocessthat,asasignoffruitful furtherrefinement,canneverbecompletelyfinished.Itiswellknownthatsuchadevel- opment,especiallyindesign,cannotbeaddressedwithoutobstaclesandindeeddissent. Evenwithinasingleculturalorlinguisticrealm,thepositionsaresupposedlyirreconcil- able.Anyundertakingthatattemptstocreateunderstandingacrossculturalandlinguis- ticbordersisthatmuchmoreambitious. Itis,afterall,oneoftheprinciplesofBIRD’sworktopromoteunderstandingofimportant design categories and conceptsinternationally. The publication of acategoricaldictio- narythusnaturallysuggesteditself.ThemembersofBIRDagreethattherecanbediffer- entapproachestosuchaproject;noapproach,description, orexplanationwillremain undisputed.Andjustastherecanbenounambiguousandconclusivedefinitionofterms like“designresearch,”forexample—because,verymuchinkeepingwiththeessenceof designandbyallmeansindebtedtodifferentapproachestoexplanation,theyarecon- stantlytransforming—adictionaryofdesigncanbenomore,andnoless,thanthebegin- ningofaprocessofunderstanding. The Design Dictionary that Michael Erlhoff and Tim Marshall have compiled, which is beingpublishedsimultaneouslyinGermanandEnglish,isanimportantstepinthiscon- text.Theeditorshavemanagedtoattracttotheirprojectauthorsfromallovertheworld whohavepresentedtheircontributionsfromavarietyofperspectivesandwithanexcel- lentgraspoftheirsubjectsthatwillenrichthediscussionofdesignterms.Weareexpect- ingittoprovokecontradiction—andindeedwedesirethat.BoththemembersofBIRD andtheeditorswillwelcomethatinthespiritofenliveningthediscussion. Through its various publications, BIRD presents important positions in the context of designresearch.TheDesignDictionarybelongstoaseriesofpublicationsofimportant referenceworksinbooksandanthologiesintheoriginallanguageand/orintranslationin ordertocollectmaterialsandpointsofreferencethatcanenrichtheinternationaldis- cussionofthedevelopmentofdesignresearch.ForthemembersofBIRDthepointisto emphasizethediversityandheterogeneityofexistingpositions,tomakethecontroversial characterofalivingdebateonresearchclear,andtostimulateandpromotefurtherdis- cussion. BoardofInternationalResearchinDesign,BIRD 5 A DICTIONARY BEGINS WHEN IT NO LONGER GIVES THE MEANINGS OF WORDS, BUT THEIR TASKS. GeorgesBataille 6 Design in a Dictionary TheEditors’Comments TheideatopublishtheDesignDictionarywasbasedonourbeliefthattherewasacom- pellingneedtomorefirmlyestablishashareddesignlanguagewithin,across,andbeyond themultipleanddisparatedesignpractices.Inotherwords,thebookisintendedtofacil- itate communication, discussion, and debate between the various groups that have a stakeinthestateofdesigntoday,whethertheyidentifythemselvesasdesigners,manu- facturers,managers,marketers,educators,orscholars.Itisalsointendedtoassistthe general interested public—the users of design—in navigating the complex and varied objectives, methodologies, and technologies that are used to create the products and systemstheyuseintheirlives. Wegaveseriousthoughttothelinguisticcategoriesandterminologythatunderpindesign discoursetoday.Thatsaid,itbecameclearwhileworkingonthebookthatwehadomitted anumberofvaluableterms.Thisfactwillundoubtedlybethesubjectofcritiquebyre- viewersandreadersalike,andweexpectthattheprojectwillprovokeasmanyquestions asitwillanswers.Weencouragethisandonlyaskthatyouhelpusidentifythesegapsso thatwemayincludeworthysuggestionsinthenextedition. Languageisofcoursealwaysinflux,anddesignitselfisahighlydynamicdomain.Con- sequently,thelanguageofdesigncanbeinfuriatinglybroadandslippery,oftenevolving through a highly verbal discourse. This may account for why there have been few at- temptstoestablishadesigndictionarytodate,andalsowhythisonedoesnotaspireto anydefinitiveordogmatic“truth.”Instead,wehaveendeavoredstylisticallytobalancea dictionarytonewiththeindividual,uniquelyauthoredvoicesandperspectivesthatmake designsuchanexcitingandvibrantpractice. TheprojectbecameevenmoreofanadventurethemomentwedecidedtopublishEnglish andGermanlanguageeditions.Thisnotonlyintroducedthearduoustaskofcomparing GermanandEnglishterminology,butalsocomplicatedissuesofcontextbaseduponwhat wefoundtobesignificantdifferencesbetweenAnglo-SaxonandGermanicphilosophical frameworks.Italsomeans—orsowehope—thatthereadersofthedictionarywillap- proachthebookfromvastlydifferentculturaloutlooks.Consequently,itwasessential— alsochallengingandultimatelyinspiring—toinviteauthorsofdifferingbackgroundsand culturestocontribute.Asaresult,thedictionaryisnotonlyheterogeneousinstyle,but also documents various trends and, in certain cases, contradictions within the global design discourse. The depth and diversity of these perspectives will become evident if younavigateyourwaythroughthebookasdesigned,usingtheindicatedcross-references toguideyoualongcertainlexicalpathways. WethankmanypeopleforcontributingtotheDesignDictionary.Inparticular,weexpress our deep debt of gratitude to the authors, who wrote excellent texts on very complex subjectsunderconsiderabletimepressure.WethankBIRDpublishingconsultantsand thepeopleatBirkh(cid:228)userandSpringer-Verlag,whodidnotalwayshavesuchaneasytask dealingwiththeeditors. 7 We also must express our very great thanks to the expert and wonderful editorial and production assistants and in particular, Jen Rhee, Dorothea Facchini, Dirk Porten, and ArneWill(cid:216)e. Wehopethereadersofthispublicationwillfindthefollowingdialogueasexcitingand inspiringaswedo! MichaelErlhoff TimMarshall 8 A ACOUSTICS > SoundDesign ADDED VALUE Addedvalueisanimplicitideaofworththatextendsbeyondthe functionalrequirementsorbasicuseofaproductorserviceto satisfy(>)need.Addedvaluescommunicateessentialinforma- tionaboutacompanyor(>)brand’sculture,values,andattitude toconsumers,andarethereforecrucialtohowtheyperceiveand respondonanemotionalleveltobrandedproducts. Forexample:aluxurysportscar’saddedvaluemaybetobuild maleegooraffordtheuserparticularstatuswithinacommuni- ty;thepurchaseofcertainbrandsoforganicproducemaycome with the added value of promoting environmental (>) sustain- ability or animal rights protection; and wearing clothing from sweatshop-laborfreefashionlabelshastheaddedvalueofsup- portingfairtradepractices.Itisparticularlyinterestingtonote howaproduct’saddedvaluemightappealtoaconsumer’sper- sonalvalues,andinspirehimorhertobemoreenvironmentally orsociallyresponsible(> Ethics).Becauseaddedvaluenotonly promotes but encourages consumers to bond with brands, it is highly influential in product differentiation and consumer decisionmaking.Asaresult,theconceptofaddedvalueisbe- comingincreasinglyimportantwithinoversaturatedmarketsin particular.KSP | > Advertisement,Branding,Value ADVERTISEMENT Afifteenth-centurydefinitionof“advertisement”as“theturning of the mind to anything: attention, observation, heed” still Advertisements are representations designed seemsappropriateforthetwenty-firstcenturywhengainingat- toaffectandinformamarketthroughknowl- tentionforone’sproductshasbecomeexceedinglydifficultwith edge ofits needs and wants, over a formof keen competition in most product categories, mature product mediatedchannelsthatresultinanexchange lifecycles,andlittleproductdifferentiation. ofvalues. In the fifteenth century, advertisements were used in the crea- tionofshopsigns,thebillboardsofthetime.Sincefewpeople were able to read, symbols and signs represented the product, service, skill, or craft within the store. Advertisements were in the form of announcements such as stagecoach schedules or classifiedadsseekinganexchangeofinformation.Media con- sisted of outdoor advertisements which were posted in city centers, personal selling from wagons, and crafted signage of thedayusedbymerchantstoannouncetheproductstheywere selling. 11 Attheonsetofthetwenty-firstcentury,anageburstingwithnew technologiesandalmostunlimitedchoice,productsseekdiffer- entiationandso(>)brandinghasbecomeanessentialformof signagetoconnecttheproductmorefirmlywiththeconsumer. The difference between products is no longer inherent in the product and its attributes, but in the benefits that accrue for the consumers when they purchase the product. Representa- tionsintheformofsymbols,signs,icons,andimageryattempt toattractthetargetedconsumerthroughaprismoftheindivid- ual’sownculture,andtheirlinguistic,social,andpersonaliden- tity. An advertisement is usually developed under the auspices of a marketing department and a creative team. The marketing group investigates and researches the market and develops a statisticalandlifestyleprofileofthepotentialtargetmarket,of thecompetitionandtheproduct’s“uniquesellingproposition” (> USP).Thisisthenpresentedtothemembersofthecreative teamintheformofacreativeplatform.Typically,creativedesign fostersandmaintainstheconnectionbetweenproductand(>) brand,andadvertisementandconsumer.Thegoalisforthecon- sumer to recall, immediately and in detail, the brand and its perceivedattributeswhenpresentedwithanadvertisement. Members of thecreative team, knownintheindustry as“crea- tives,” will use design methodologies such as (>) semiotics to convey meaning through sign or (>) symbol. However, aspira- tionalstylesofadvertisingleadtonewsignifiersastheconsumer becomes part of the designed experience. Visual imagery with littletextisneededfortheadvertisementsinaCorona(>)cam- paign,forinstance,inwhichtheviewerlooksthroughawindow toasun-drenchedbeachandtwobeachchairsfacingtheocean. Theonlysignofaproductisatonesidewheretwofrostedbeers await the beachgoers. The brand invites the viewer to step in, pullupachair,andbepartoftheexperience. Advertisementsarepartofthebrandingprocessandareseldom designed to stand alone; rather, they are intended to become part of a continuing conversation with the listener, viewer, or readerastheyaregoingabouttheireverydaylives(> Corporate Identity).Themostimportantaspectofthisprocessisidentify- ingwiththetargetmarket(> TargetGroup)anddesigningame- dianetworkthatcontinuestosustaintheconsumerexperience. Withtheexponentialincreaseinnumbersofpeopleandprod- ucts over the centuries, new (>) information industries have grown to collect market data that can then be analyzed and usedinadvertisingdesign.Theabilitytoknow“themarket”for aproducthasbecomecomplex,requiringresearchthatnotonly revealswhereconsumerslive,butwhyandhowtheylive—thatis 12 their(>)valuesand(>)lifestyles.Today,fragmentationofaudi- enceandmediaduetoanincreasinglytechnologicalandmobile society has opened new avenues in (>) market research. Data- basemanagement,alongwithothersciencesasvastaseconom- icsandhistoryandasdiverseasanthropologyandneuroscience, hasemergedandjoinedthefieldsofdemography,ethnography, andpsychology,amongothers,tohelponedefinetargetmarkets andunderstandtheirneedsandwants.Sincethe1990s,compa- nieshavebeen usinganewformofbrandresearch,Coolhunt- ing, to seek out emerging (>) trends. The original goal was to make observations and predictions about fashion or design from the street in order to enhance a brand’s “coolness” or “buzz.”Companieshavealsobeguntoemployyoungundercover scoutsfromamongtheirtargetdemographicstoprovideintelli- gence, test products among selected segments and persuade adoption through peer networks. Most recently, companies havebegundataminingblogsandusingthemas“tuningforks” toanalyzetheelectronicmusingsanddesiresofmillions.These newhuntersarebecomingthesource,themedium,andtherep- resentation of brand communications, all of which can now changeinananosecond. Whereapplicable,advertisersuse(>)needormotivationalplat- formstodesignandextendappealsandexecutiontechniquesin the development of advertisements. Abraham Maslow’s “Hier- archy of Needs” is the best known of these platforms. It is de- pictedasapyramidconsistingoffivelevels:thefourlowerlevels aregroupedtogetheras“deficiencyneeds”associatedwithphys- iological needs, while the top level is termed “growth needs” associated with psychological needs. While deficiency needs must be met, growth needs are continually shaping behavior. The basic concept is that the higher needs in this hierarchy, such as the needs associated with social recognition, self es- teem,andactualization,onlycomeintofocusoncealltheneeds that are lower down the pyramid, such as physiological and safetyneeds,aremainlyorentirelysatisfied.Inaffluentsocieties, promotionalappealsaremostlybasedonsocialandself-esteem needs, which emphasize luxury and recognition by others. The goalofanadvertisementistodesignpersuasivechoicesthatin- volveeitheremotionaland/orrationalapproaches. Creativesusedifferenthierarchicalformstohelpdesigntheap- peals and the structure of an advertisement. The first is the Foote,Cone&Belding(FCB)planningmodel.Thisisafour-part gridformedbytwointersectingaxesthatexaminesproductand consumer relationships. From here, creatives try to determine thepromotionalplatformdefinedbythedimensionsofthinking and feeling and the level of involvement required from the 13 consumer in purchase decisions. Cars, new homes, and other complex products are defined as high involvement/thinking products that require an informative strategy compared with lower involvement/emotional products such as food, clothing, andconfectionary. Valueattributesgiventoproductsareoftenembeddedwithinthe developmentofacopyplatform.Peopleuseobjectstosetthem- selves apart from others (> Added Value). Examples are luxury fashions or automobiles that promise to confer a special status and class with ownership. The Virgin brand has been endowed withthepersonalitytraitsofitsowner,RichardBranson—adven- turous,individualistic,andnonconforming.Volkswagenattempts tohumanizeandpersonalizetheirRabbitbrandwithcampaigns suchasthebirdsandbees“Multiply”commercialand,ofcourse, theclassicBeetleads.Indeed,personalizationisthebuzzwordof thetwenty-firstcentury.Companiesoftenchoosecelebritiestobe their spokespeople—to represent the brand and to imbue the productsofthatbrandwiththequalitiesseentobeintrinsicto thatprojectedcharacter. Thetwo most important determinants of celebritysuccess are, firstly, the basic promise that the prod- uct/brand will benefit from its association with that celebrity, and,secondly,therelevanceandcredibilityofthecelebrity. Asecondplanningmodelusedbydesignerswhenconvertingthe strategy and the “unique differential” or “big idea” into an ac- tualadvertisementiscalledtheCreativePyramid.Thishelpsfo- cusoncopyandartanditsabilitytomoveconsumersthrough cognitiveor“thinking”stagestoaffectiveor“feeling”stagesof advertising. Whether the medium is print or electronic, the samestructureisusedwithinthevisualandcopyfield;thead- vertisementseekstogaininterest,createdesire,andclosewith anactionsuchasasale. Thecreativeprocessisnotfinisheduntilamediumischosento carrythemessagetotheenduserorconsumer.Advertisements arecalledcommercialsontelevisionandradioandaredefined bytheirtime—fifteen,thirty,orsixtyseconds.Othermediasuch asnewspapersandmagazineshavelongerlivesbutlackthemul- timedia advantages of broadcast. Billboards and transit adver- tisements are designed as support media within advertising campaignsandalloftheaboveareconsiderednon-personalme- dia.Directpersonalformsaremail,telephone,in-personrepre- sentation, and forms of digital interaction such as e-mail and rich media channels among others. More recently, a prolifera- tion of advertisements has crossed the editorial boundaries drawnbetweencommercialandfactualadvertising.Theycome disguisedineditorialformatssuchasvideonewsreleases,info- mercials,advertorials,docudramas,andvariousformsofprod- 14

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