Design and Analysis of Large Lithium-ion Battery Systems

241 Pages·2014·6.57 MB·English

by  Shiram Santhanagopalan

Design and Analysis of
Large Lithium-Ion Battery Systems
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Design and Analysis of
Large Lithium-Ion Battery Systems
Shriram Santhanagopalan
Kandler Smith
Jeremy Neubauer
Gi-Heon Kim
Matthew Keyser
Ahmad Pesaran
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the U.S. Library of Congress.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN-13: 978-1-60807-713-7
Cover design by John Gomes
© 2015 Artech House
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface ix
CHAPTER 1
Types of Batteries 1
1.1 Lead Acid Batteries 3
1.2 Nickel-Based Batteries 4
1.3 Sodium Beta Batteries 6
1.3.1 Sodium Sulfur Batteries 6
1.3.2 Metal Chloride Batteries 7
1.3.3 Challenges and Future Work 7
1.4 Flow Batteries 8
1.4.1 Redox Flow Batteries 8
1.4.2 Hybrid-Flow Batteries 9
1.4.3 Challenges and Future Work 9
1.5 Li-Ion Batteries 10
1.5.1 Lithium-Ion Cathodes 10
1.5.2 Lithium-Ion Anodes 12
1.5.3 Li-Ion Electrolytes 13
1.5.4 Li-Ion Challenges and Future Work 13
1.6 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries 15
1.6.1 Lithium-Sulfur Cathodes 15
1.6.2 Lithium-Sulfur Anode 16
1.6.3 Challenges and Future Work 16
1.7 Metal-Air Batteries 17
1.7.1 Zinc-Air Batteries 17
1.7.2 Lithium-Air Batteries 18
1.7.3 Challenges and Future Work 19
1.8 Emerging Chemistries 19
1.8.1 Sodium-Ion Batteries 19
1.8.2 Liquid Metal 20
CHAPTER 2
Electrical Performance 21
2.1 Thermodynamics Inside a Battery 21
2.2 Assembling a Li-Ion Cell 24
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vi Contents
2.3 Voltage Dynamics during Charge/Discharge 28
2.4 Circuit Diagram for a Cell 29
2.5 Electrochemical Models for Cell Design 31
2.5.1 Charge Transport within the Electrode by Electrons 33
2.5.2 Charge Transport in the Electrolyte by Ions 34
2.5.3 Charge Transfer between the Electrodes and the Electrolyte 36
2.5.4 Distribution of Ions 37
2.6 Electrical Characterization of Li-Ion Batteries 39
2.6.1 Capacity Measurement 40
2.6.2 Power Measurement 40
2.6.3 Component Characterization 41
References 46
CHAPTER 3
Thermal Behavior 47
3.1 Heat Generation in a Battery 47
3.1.1 Heat Generation from Joule Heating 47
3.1.2 Heat Generation from Electrode Reactions 49
3.1.3 Entropic Heat Generation 49
3.2 Experimental Measurement of Thermal Parameters 51
3.2.1 Isothermal Battery Calorimeters 51
3.2.2 Basic IBC Operation 51
3.2.3 Typical Applications for an IBC 54
3.3 Differential Scanning Calorimeters 58
3.3.1 Differential Scanning Calorimeters and Batteries 60
3.4 Infrared Imaging 62
3.4.1 Origin of Thermal Energy 62
3.4.2 Calibration and Error 65
3.4.3 Imaging Battery Systems 65
3.5 Desired Attributes of a Thermal Management System 67
3.5.1 Designing a Battery Thermal Management System 68
3.5.2 Optimization 75
3.6 Conclusions 79
References 79
CHAPTER 4
Battery Life 81
4.1 Overview 81
4.1.1 Physics 81
4.1.2 Calendar Life Versus Cycle Life 82
4.1.3 Regions of Performance Fade 83
4.1.4 End of Life 86
4.1.5 Extending Cell Life Prediction to Pack Level 87
4.1.6 Fade Mechanisms in Electrochemical Cells 88
4.1.7 Common Degradation Mechanisms in Li-Ion Cells 89
Contents vii
4.2 Modeling 99
4.2.1 Physics-Based 99
4.2.2 Semiempirical Models 105
4.3 Testing 108
4.3.1 Screening/Benchmarking Tests 110
4.3.2 Design of Experiments 110
4.3.3 RPTs 111
4.3.4 Other Diagnostic Tests 112
References 115
CHAPTER 5
Battery Safety 117
5.1 Safety Concerns in Li-Ion Batteries 117
5.1.1 Electrical Failure 118
5.1.2 Thermal Failure 118
5.1.3 Electrochemical Failure 119
5.1.4 Mechanical Failure 120
5.1.5 Chemical Failure 120
5.2 Modeling Insights on Li-Ion Battery Safety 121
5.2.1 Challenges with Localized Failure 121
5.2.2 Effectiveness of Protective Devices in Multicell Packs 121
5.2.3 Mechanical Considerations 122
5.2.4 Pressure Buildup 124
5.2.5 Designing Protective Circuitry to Combat Short Circuit 126
5.3 Evaluating Battery Safety 128
5.3.1 Measurement of Reaction Heats: Accelerating Rate Calorimeters 128
5.3.2 Thermomechanical Characterization of Passive Components 131
5.3.3 Cell-Level Testing 133
References 137
CHAPTER 6
Applications 139
6.1 Battery Requirements 139
6.1.1 Electrical Requirements 139
6.1.2 Thermal Requirements 141
6.1.3 Mechanical Requirements 141
6.1.4 Safety/Abuse Requirements 142
6.2 Automotive Applications 142
6.2.1 Drive Cycles 142
6.2.2 SLI 143
6.2.3 Start-Stop (Micro) Hybrids 143
6.2.4 Power Assist Hybrids 144
6.2.5 Plug-In Hybrids 145
6.2.6 BEVs 149
6.3 Grid Applications 151
6.3.1 Demand Charge Management and Uninterruptable Power Sources 154
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6.3.2 Area Regulation and Transportable Asset Upgrade Deferral 157
6.3.3 Community Energy Storage 161
6.3.4 Other Grid-Connected Applications 162
References 162
CHAPTER 7
System Design 165
7.1 Electrical Design 166
7.1.1 Power/Energy Ratio 166
7.1.2 Series/Parallel Topology 167
7.1.3 Balance of Plant 169
7.2 Thermal Design 171
7.3 Mechanical Design 173
7.4 Electronics and Controls 174
7.4.1 Roles of Battery Management 174
7.4.2 BMS Hardware 174
7.4.3 Cell Balancing 176
7.4.4 State Estimation Algorithms 177
7.4.5 Battery Reference Model 179
7.4.6 State Estimator 180
7.4.7 Current/Power Limits Calculation 182
7.5 Design Process 183
7.6 Design Standards 184
7.7 Case Study 1: Automotive Battery Design 185
7.7.1 Life Predictive Model 186
7.7.2 Fitting Life Parameters to Cell Aging Data 188
7.7.3 Prediction of Battery Temperature in Vehicle 190
7.7.4 Control Trade-Offs Versus Lifetime 194
7.8 Case Study 2: Behind-the-Meter Peak-Shaving of a Large
Utility Customer 196
7.8.1 End User Needs and Constraints 197
7.8.2 End User Load Profile and Rate Structure 197
7.8.3 Baseline 207
7.8.4 Increased Cooling 208
7.8.5 Reduced Target SOC 208
7.8.6 Decreased Maximum SOC 211
7.9 System Specification 212
References 213
CHAPTER 8
Conclusion 217
About the Authors 219
Index 221
Preface
Battery development is hampered by the lack of cross-disciplinary communication
between electrochemists, material scientists, and the mechanical and electrical en-
gineers responsible for scaling up basic electrochemical cells to large systems. Until
recently, lithium-ion batteries have been used in small-size applications, either as
individual cells in cell phones and laptops or as small modules in power tools and
other consumer electronics applications. Over the last decade, the battery market
has significantly expanded to include applications that demand thousands of times
the energy content typical of the traditional small-size batteries: the electrical grid
and automobiles are but two applications that will drive the proliferation of electri-
cal energy storage into the future.
This book is intended to serve as an introductory text that provides a solid
understanding of the multiple facets of battery engineering. For systems-oriented
engineers, this text demystifies electrochemistry; for the electrochemist, this text
introduces topics that must be addressed for scale-up, including developing model-
based design and control platforms; for the analyst, this text provides a jump-start
on the basics of lithium-ion batteries and the challenges in deployment.
Chapters cover an introduction to the different types of batteries and where
lithium-ion batteries fit in; fundamentals of electrochemistry, including sections
on what criteria one must use and associated limitations in selecting the materials
to build a lithium ion battery; design of thermal management systems for lithium
ion batteries, from heat generation in a single-cell to design of cooling channels in
a multicell module; a detailed account of the state of the art in prognosis methods
for battery life; safety challenges faced when scaling up well-established chemistries
to larger formats; and an overview of the wide range of applications with specific
engineering examples on the technoeconomic evaluation of large-format lithium-
ion batteries used in automotive applications and system design for grid-storage
applications.
The book targets readers from diverse backgrounds who would like to get on
a fast track to understanding battery engineering within a few weeks and go be-
yond treating the battery as a black box in their line of work. Each chapter takes a
hands-on approach based on the years of experience the authors have accumulated
in this discipline, and provides relevant context, requisite theoretical background,
experimental tools, and real-world examples. New methods are introduced for bat-
tery lifetime prediction that may be practically implemented in design optimization,
warranty assessment, systems control, and other analyses. The chapter on battery
ix