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DEMOCRACYPROMOTIONANDU.S.FOREIGNPOLICY: THEROLEOFDOMESTICNORMS By THOMASJAYNISLEY ADISSERTATIONPRESENTEDTOTHEGRADUATESCHOOL OFTHEUNIVERSITYOFFLORIDAINPARTIALFULFILLMENT OFTHEREQUIREMENTSFORTHEDEGREEOF DOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITYOFFLORIDA 2002 Copyright2002 by ThomasJayNisley ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thisstudyisaproductofmanyyearsofclassroomwork,beginningatthe undergraduatelevel,andthreeyearsofintenseresearchandwriting. Ithankallmy professorswhohelpedshapemyunderstandingofpoliticsandworldaffairs. Thanksgoto mydissertationcommitteewhohelpedguidemeinthedissertationprocess. Iextenda particularheartfeltthankstomycommitteechair,Dr.M.LeannBrown,andtoDr.Ido Orenfortheirthoughtfulattention,comments,andsuggestionsforeachofthedraft chapters. IthanktheDepartmentofPoliticalScience,whichgavemetheopportunityto workasateachingassistantwhileattheUniversityofFlorida. Acknowledgmentand appreciationgototheCollegeofLiberalArts,GibsonDissertationFellowship,forfunding aphaseofthedissertationproject. AcknowledgmentgoestotheU.S.Federal government'sstudentloanprogram. Withoutsuchaprogram,Ineverwouldhave financedmyfirstyearofstudyattheUniversityofFlorida. Lifelongthanksgotomyfather,Kermit,andmymother,Joanne,whose encouragementandsupportoverthemanyyearshavehelpedmetoachievewhatIhave. Finally,thedeepestthanksgotomywife,Clara,forherloveandunderstanding throughouttheentireprocess. 111 TABLEOFCONTENTS £age ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii ABSTRACT vi CHAPTERS 1 FOREIGNPOLICYANDSOCIETALCHANGE 1 2 THEORYOFFOREIGNPOLICYANDDEMOCRACYPROMOTION .... 12 Introduction 12 TheoreticalApproach 12 DomesticNormsinForeignPolicy 18 ExplanationsforU.S.EffortstoPromoteDemocracyandHumanRights 25 DomesticTheoriesofForeignPolicy 33 PublicOpinionandForeignPolicy 36 CausalHypothesis 41 3 NORMSANDTHEGROWTHOFTOLERANCE 45 Introduction 45 SocialSciences,NormsandExplanation 46 NormsandaState'sIdentity 51 AmericanIdentity 54 ChangingAmericanIdentity 56 SocialMovementsandIdentityChange 63 MulticulturalandTolerantAmerica 71 Conclusion 89 4 HUMANRIGHTSINU.S.FOREIGNPOLICY 91 Introduction 91 PresidentialRhetoric 92 HumanRightsinU.S.ForeignPolicy 97 UncertainSupport1945-1953 98 OvertNeglect1953-1976 101 IV SupportandPromotion1977-2000 107 QuantitativeAnalysesofU.S.SupportforHumanRights Ill Conclusion 115 5 CONGRESSANDTHETRANSMISSIONOFNORMSTOFOREIGNPOLICY 118 Introduction 118 ConstitutionalPowerandForeignPolicy 119 TheTwoPresidencies 122 TwoPresidencies:FactorArtifact 124 AResurgentCongress 127 ConstituentInfluenceonCongress 130 CongressionalInfluence 133 Congress,HumanRightsandDemocracyPromotion 136 Conclusion 152 6 CONGRESSANDFOREIGNPOLICY:CONTRAAIDANDSOUTH AFRICANSANCTIONS 154 Introduction 154 ContraAid 155 SouthAfricanSanctions 161 Conclusion 168 7 SUMMARYOFFINDINGSANDCONCLUSION 170 REFERENCES 182 BIOGRAPHICALSKETCH 207 AbstractofDissertationPresentedtotheGraduateSchool oftheUniversityofFloridainPartialFulfillmentofthe RequirementsfortheDegreeofDoctorofPhilosophy DEMOCRACYPROMOTIONANDU.S.FOREIGNPOLICY: THEROLEOFDOMESTICNORMS By ThomasJayNisley August2002 Chairperson:Dr.M.LeannBrown MajorDepartment:PoliticalScience AlthoughtheUnitedStates(U.S.)hasgenerallyemphasizeddemocracyinits internationalrelations,theevidencesuggeststhatinthepostWorldWarIIeraU.S.policy increasinglydisplayedatendencytopromoteactivelythespreadofdemocracyglobally. I contendthattheprimarysourceofpolicychangeoriginatesfromchangingdomestic normsregardingpoliticalandcivilrights. Asthecommitmenttopoliticalandcivilrights increasedinthedomesticarena,thecommitmenttopoliticalandcivilrightsinternationally increased. BeforetheVotingRightsActof1965,andotheraccomplishmentsoftheCivil RightsMovement,U.S.foreignpolicydecisionmakerscaredlittleforregimetypeintheir policyorientations. Afterthesocialupheavalsof1960s,Ihavefoundagreatersensitivity inU.S.policytowarddemocracypromotion. Theearly1970sisatransitionperiodinthe VI prevailingnormsregardingcivilandpoliticalrightsintheUnitedStatesandU.S.foreign policytowardthepromotionofhumanrightsanddemocracy. Thechangesinnormsled toachangeinidentity. Intheearly1970s,wefindthebasicU.S.identityshiftingfroma Euro-Americanidentitytoamulticulturalidentity. Theoreticallymyanalysisoriginatesfromaconstructivistapproachtothestudyof worldpolitics. Theconstructivistapproachemphasizestheimpactofideas,ratherthan materialconsiderations. Thisresearchspecificallyanalyzesthechangingnormative structureintheUnitedStatesandtheconcurrentchangeinidentity. Thisstudylinksthese transformationstochangesinforeignpolicy. TheactionsoftheU.S.Congressregarding humanrightsanddemocracypromotionarespecificallyanalyzed. Congressrepresentsthe linkbetweendomesticnormsandforeignpolicyorientations. Thefindingssuggestthatwemustconsiderdomesticlevelfactorsinour explanationsofinternationalbehaviorandforeignpolicy. ParticularlyfortheUnited States,ahumanrightsagendaandapolicyofdemocracypromotionareassociatedwith domesticsocietalchangesregardingpoliticalandcivilrightsandageneralgrowthin tolerance. vu CHAPTER 1 FOREIGNPOLICYANDSOCIETALCHANGE ThisstudyseekstoexplainthesourcesofdemocracypromotioninU.S.foreign policy. AlthoughtheUnitedStateshasgenerallyemphasizeddemocracyinits internationalrelations,theevidencesuggeststhatinthepostWorldWarIIeraU.S.policy increasinglydisplayedagreaterinvolvementinadvancingthespreadofdemocracy globally. Icontendthattheprimarysourceofpolicychangeoriginatesfromchanging domesticnormsregardingpoliticalandcivilrights. Asthecommitmenttopoliticaland civilrightsincreasedinthedomesticarena,thecommitmenttopoliticalandcivilrights internationallyincreased. BeforetheVotingRightsActof1965,andother accomplishmentsoftheCivilRightsMovement,U.S.foreignpolicydecisionmakerscared littleforregimetypeintheirpolicyorientations. Afterthesocialupheavalsof1960s,I havefoundagreatersensitivityinU.S.policytowarddemocracypromotion. Theearly 1970sisatransitionperiodintheprevailingnormsregardingcivilandpoliticalrightsin theUnitedStates. ItisduringthisperiodthatU.S.foreignpolicytowardthepromotion ofhumanrightsanddemocracychanges. Thechangeinnormsleadstochangesin identity.1 Intheearly1970swefindthebasicU.S.ethnic/racialidentityshiftingfroma identityisamultifacetedconceptcoveringnotionsoftherelationoftheindividual tosociety,politics,andgeneralworldviewssuchasfatalismoroptimism. Inthisstudy thechangeinidentityislimitedtothatofracial/ethnicclassification. 1 2 Euro-Americanidentitytoamulticulturalidentity. Themulticulturalidentityincludesnot onlytheacceptanceofmultipleracialandethnicgroups,butisalsogenerallytolerantofall formsofdiversity. HowtheUnitedStatesseesitselfimpactsonhowitrelatestotherest oftheworld. Thisstudyisimportantinhowitanalyzesdomesticlevelfactorsonforeignpolicy. OtherworkshaveexaminedtherelationshipbetweenracismintheUnitedStatesandU.S. foreignpolicy(Hunt1987,DeConde1992). Theseworks,forthemostpart,haveshown thedeleteriouseffectsofAmericanracisminU.S.foreignrelations. Recentresearchhas shownhowadvancesincivilrightsarerelatedtothelevelofthreattheUnitedStates facedintheworldsystem(KlinkerandSmith1999,Dudziak2000). Forthemostpart, theseworkshaveneglectedtoexaminetheimpactofdecliningdomesticlevelsofracism andU.S.foreignpolicy. Somedetractorswilldecrythattheviewofdecliningprejudicesandincreasing tolerance presentedinthisstudyispollyannaish. Theywillsaythatracismisaliveand wellintheU.S. OtherswillclaimthatU.S.foreignpolicydoesnotconsiderhumanrights andconsistentlyviolateshumanconcernsforthelarger"nationalinterest." Iamnotatall suggestingthatracismordiscriminationnolongerplaguestheUnitedStates. NeitheramI intimatingthatAmericanforeignpolicyconsistentlysupportsdemocracyandhuman rights. WhatIdosuggestisthattherehavebeenchangesintheU.S.domesticnorms. Thesechangeshavebroughtaboutanincreaseinrespectforpoliticalandcivilrightsanda tolerancefordiversityatthedomesticlevel. Moreover,U.S.foreignpolicyreflectsthese changes. TowhatextenthastheUnitedStateschanged? Asabriefillustrationweneedonly tolookattheUnitedStatesandtheactionsofU.S.presidentsduringtwodifferentperiods ofwartime. TheactionsofPresidentWoodrowWilsonduringWorldWarIandGeorge W.Bushinthepresent"WaragainstTerrorism"provideastudyincontrast. Asthe UnitedStatesmobilizedforwaragainstGermanyandtheCentralPowers,extensive attacksoccurredagainstGermancultureandGerman-Americans. Germanfoodswere strippedoftheirnames. Hamburgersbecamelibertysandwiches. AttacksonGerman- Americanswereprevalent. Uniqueformsofviolencewereoftendevisedbymobstopunishthosecharged withdisloyaltyorpro-Germanism. Forinstance,inSanRafael,California,aman hadhishairclippedintheformofacross,afterwhichhewastiedtoatreeonthe courthouselawn. ApersonofGermanbirthinSaltLakeCitywasthrownintoa binofdoughwherehealmostsuffocated. InPennsylvaniaamanwastakenfroma hotelroom,"severelybeaten,madetowalkupanddownthestreetwithadog chainaroundhisneck,forcedtokisstheflaganddousedintoalargewatering trough"(PetersonandFite1957,197). Inonecase,nearSt.Louisin1918,amobboundamaninanAmericanflagbeforethey lynchedhim(Kennedy1980,68). PresidentWilsonremainedmutetotheattackon German-AmericansbyAmericans. DavidKennedy(1980,88)relatesthatWilson "persistentlyignoredpleastospeakoutagainstattacksonGerman-Americans." TheactionsofPresidentGeorgeW.BushaftertheattackofSeptember11,2001 byIslamicextremistsontheUnitedStatesareinsharpcontrasttotheactionsofWilson. ThefirsthintofretaliatoryattacksonArab-AmericansorAmericansoftheIslamicfaith broughtasharpandquickcondemnationfromthePresident. Standingbarefootinatiled prayeralcoveintheWashingtonIslamicCenter,PresidentBushdeclaredthatthose"who