Democracy in Southern Europe: Colonialism, International Relations and Europeanization from Malta to Cyprus

303 Pages·2019·24.773 MB·English

by  Isabelle Calleja Ragonesi

Isabelle Calleja Ragonesi is Senior Lecturer in International Relations, University
of Malta. She completed her PhD under the supervision of Professor Robert
Leonardi from the European Institute at the London School of Economics and
Political Science.
‘Here is a detailed insight into the transition to, and workings of the post-
sovereign state and the multi-level governance that defines it. What this book
makes abundantly clear is the significant interaction and integration of domestic
and international spheres in the process of state democratization. A meticulous
and critical, parallel political history of the two Mediterranean small island states
of Cyprus and Malta invites readers to acknowledge and assess the influence of
trans-territorial actors: in particular, Britain as the reluctant colonial power; and
the European Community/Union. With post-1945 Southern Europe locked in her
sights, and drawing on multiple sources, Calleja Ragonesi makes a powerful case
for a reassessment of mainstream, functionalist or elitist, interpretations of the
democratic transition in this region, which remains a “work in progress”.’
Professor Godfrey Baldacchino
University of Malta, Malta / University of Prince
Edward Island, Canada
DEMOCRACY IN SOUTHERN EUROPE
Colonialism, International Relations and
Europeanization from Malta to Cyprus
Isabelle Calleja Ragonesi
Published in 2019 by
I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd
London • New York
www.ibtauris.com

Copyright © 2019 Isabelle Calleja Ragonesi

The right of Isabelle Calleja Ragonesi to be identified as the author of this work has been
asserted by the author in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or any part thereof,
may not be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

References to websites were correct at the time of writing.

Library of European Studies

ISBN: 978-1-78831-257-8
eISBN: 978-1-78672-559-2
ePDF: 978-1-78673-559-1

A full CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

A full CIP record is available from the Library of Congress

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: available

Printed and bound by in Great Britain
CONTENTS
Preface ix
Chapter 1
DEMOCRATIZATION IN SOUTHERN EUROPE AS SHOWN
IN THE POLITICAL LITERATURE OF THE REGION 1
Introduction 1
A Focus on the Domestic Scene: The Functionalist Approach 1
A Model of Retarded Development 2
Southern Europe Returns to the Fold: The Successful Transition 3
The Comparative Approach and the Importance of Chronology 4
The Influence of the Developmental and Modernization Schools 4
The Elitist Approach and the Role of Domestic Players – the First
Phase: The Politics of Conflict and Dis-unified Elites 5
Fascist and Colonial Models of Government 6
The Elitist School – the Second Phase: From Dis-unified to
Consensual Elites 7
The Elitist School – the Third Phase: Politics Conducted by
Consensually Unified Elites 8
Pacted Transitions and the Application of Game Theory 9
Game Theory and the Four-Player Model 10
Variations on the Model 10
The Model in Action 10
The Key Role of the Domestic Players and the Subsidiary Role
of the External Players 12
The External Factor – Phase One: The Macro Climate and the
Functionalist Approach 12
The External Factor – Phase Two: The Micro Climate and the
Elitist Approach 14
A Politics of Consensus under the Influence of Consensually
Unified Elites 15
The Inclusion of External Factors in Models of Democratization 16
Phase Three: Integrating Domestic and External Variables 17
vi Contents
From Bilateral to the Multilateral, from the National to the Supranational 20
The Twenty-First Century and the Concept of the Reverse Wave 22
Conclusion 26
Chapter 2
DEMOCRATIZATION IN SOUTHERN EUROPE – AN EXTERNAL
MODEL OF TRANSITION: COLONIAL VERSUS AUTHORITARIAN
TRENDS 29
Introduction 29
The Absence of External Players in Democratization Models 30
The Global Order and Different Regime Types: Similarities of the
Colonial and Authoritarian Models 30
The Premodern Phase: The Discourse of Fragmented Nationalism
and the Dominance of Dis-unified Elites 31
Hijacking the Fragmented Nation State 32
The Problem of Smallness and Island Micro States 34
Democratization: Consolidating Sovereignty and the Nation-State Model 35
The Four-and-a-Half-Player Model: The Modern Phase 40
The International Climate 42
The Postmodern Phase: Nation to Federation – Independence to
Integration 44
The Postcolonial Model 46
The Post-Truth Phase: Supranational versus the Intergovernmental 46
Conclusion 48
Chapter 3
MALTA AND CYPRUS: THE CASE OF GUIDED DEMOCRACIES –
DEMOCRATIC TRANSITION FROM COLONIAL RULE 51
Introduction 51
History: Points of Commonality 51
History: Points of Divergence 52
The Transition Begins: The Functionalist Approach – Government
Prior to British Rule 53
Constitutional Developments 54
The Emergence of a Party System 56
The Transitions Begin: The Elitist Approach – The Extremes Emerge 58
Economics and the Emergence of Unions 59
Transition and Public Opinion 60
Contents vii
External Players Enter in Full Force 61
The Independence Constitutions 63
Negotiating the Constitutions 64
Lack of Consensus – Cyprus 64
Lack of Consensus – Malta 67
Seeking the Support of Other External Players: The UN 69
The Politics of Collusion 70
The Impact of the Cold War 72
Democratic Transition or Attempts at Continued Hegemony? 74
The Extremes Threaten the Transition 75
Completed Transitions in a Climate of Uncertainty and Unpreparedness 76
Conclusion 78
Chapter 4
NEWLY INDEPENDENT STATES – CYPRUS AND MALTA:
CONSOLIDATING DEMOCRACY AND ITS SUBSEQUENT
BREAKDOWN 81
Introduction 81
Background 82
The Collapse of Democratic Government 83
Phase One: Working and Living with the Constitution 83
Preliminary Attempts at Settlement 85
Phase Two: Attempts at Constitutional Revision 91
Phase Three: Failure to Compromise, Coercive Action and the
Counter State 98
Conclusion 106
Chapter 5
MALTA AND CYPRUS: CONSOLIDATING THE NATION STATE –
NEGOTIATING A COMPROMISE: THE SECOND TRANSITION 109
Introduction 109
Different Points of Departure 110
Cyprus in 1964 and Malta in 1981: The Extent of Regime Breakdown 110
Enter External Actors 113
Background to Mediation 115
The Talks Begin 121
The Changing Environment 124
The Breakdown of Talks 127
viii Contents
Rising Violence 129
Last-Ditch Attempts to Save the Talks 131
Conclusion 133
Chapter 6
CONSOLIDATING DEMOCRACY UNDER A FEDERAL
MODEL: MALTA, CYPRUS AND THE EU 135
Introduction 135
History of EU Relations 135
Changing Conditions 137
The Long Haul 138
The Suitability of Malta and Cyprus for EU Membership 139
Divergent Views on Membership 141
Impact on the Party Systems 142
Successfully Co-opting the Opposition 144
Preparing for Accession and Adopting the Acquis 144
Structured Dialogue and the Transformation of the State 145
Commission Feedback 148
Accommodating the Opposition 149
Membership and the State Transformed 152
A Decade Post Accession: Democratization Progression or Regression? 156
Conclusion 161
Conclusion
FROM DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION TO EUROPEANIZATION 163
Assessing the Model 163
The Model’s Trajectory: From Dependency to Europeanization 167
Whither the Model? The Way Forward 169
Notes 173
Bibliography 239
Index 285
PREFACE
This work focuses on the phenomenon of democratic transition through
decolonization, where external actors played an overriding role. The author
reconstructs the history of transition to democracy in the two islands of Malta and
Cyprus, using primary source documentation. These patterns of democratization
are then tested in the context of the major theories in the field to determine to
what extent they follow conventional patterns of transition in the area. Both
islands’ experiences are thus placed within the wider framework of Southern
Europe:  similar geographic, political, cultural and socio-economic factors
favouring the use of a comparative methodology. However, despite the existence
of a rich resource base of historical and theoretical studies, the theories developed
in Southern Europe focus on transitions from authoritarian rule and are not
sufficient to explain democratization in Cyprus and Malta. For the conventional
model of Southern European democratization is based on a ‘four-player’ scenario
emphasizing the role of domestic elites in securing democratization, and
discounts the role of external players. By drawing on existing models, and later
insights that indicate that external actors also played a role in the authoritarian
transitions, this study posits a new model of democratization. It remains faithful
to a ‘four-player game’ but extends it to include a ‘four-and-a-half’ and a ‘five-
player’ model. These two models incorporate and detail the role of external players
alongside that of domestic players in democratization in the region. Consequently,
these models are a better indicator of democratic transition, and the process of
Europeanization in Southern Europe, and enable the author to explain more
accurately democratization in Malta and Cyprus.