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ISSUES IN POLITICAL THEORY Political Theory has undergone a remarkable development in recent years. From a state in which it was once declared dead, it has come to occupy a central place in the study of Politics. Both political ideas and the wide-ranging arguments to which they give rise are now treated in a rigorous, analytical fashion, and political theorists have contributed to disciplines as diverse as economics, sociology and law. These developments have made the subject more challenging and exciting, but they have also added to the dif ficulties of students and others coming to the subject for the first time. Much of the burgeoning literature in specialist books and journals is readily intelligible only to those who are already well versed in the subject. Issues in Political Theory is a series conceived in response to this situ ation. It consists of a number of detailed and comprehensive studies of issues central to Political Theory which take account of the latest developments in scholarly debate. While making original contributions to the subject, books in the series are written espe cially for those who are new to Political Theory. Each volume aims to introduce its readers to the intricacies of a fundamental political issue and to help them find their way through the detailed, and often complicated, argument that that issue has attracted. PETER JONES ALBERT WEALE ISSUES IN POLITICAL THEORY Series Editors: PETER JONES and ALBERT WEALE Published David Beetham: The Legitimation of Power Tom Campbell: Justice John Horton: Political Obligation Peter Jones: Rights Albert Weale: Democracy Forthcoming Bhikhu Parekh: The Politics of Multiculturalism Hillel Steiner: Utilitarianism Democracy Albert Weale © Albert Weale 1999 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WIP 9HE. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his rights to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 1999 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world ISBN 978-0-333-56755-5 ISBN 978-1-349-27291-4 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-27291-4 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 99 Typeset by EXPO Holdings, Malaysia Published in the United States of America 1999 by ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 ISBN 978-0-312-22092-1 PBK ISBN 978-0-312-22092-1 HC Contents Acknowledgements VB 1 Introduction: Democracy and Political Theory 1 Political principles and political theory 5 The circumstances of politics 8 The definition of democracy 13 2 Varieties of Democracy 19 A typology of democratic forms 24 Choosing forms of government 36 3 The Justification of Democracy 40 The protective case for democracy 43 Democracy versus adjudication 47 Democracy and political equality 54 Common interests and common ideals 59 4 Autonomy, Virtue and Consent 62 Democracy and autonomy 64 Democracy and deliberative autonomy 68 Democracy and virtue 74 Democracy and consent 78 5 Participation and Representation 84 Participation and feasibility 85 Participation versus representation? 90 From representation to constitutional democracy? 98 Choosing among systems 104 6 Forms of Representation 106 Representing interests, opinions or characteristics? 108 v VI Contents Back to social characteristics? 116 Conclusions 122 7 Unanimity, Consensus and Majority Rule 124 The principle of unanimi ty 126 The properties of majority rule 129 Condorcet cycles and the paradox of voting 137 Voting cycles and institutional rationality 143 Conclusions 146 8 Inclusion 148 The problem of qualification 151 The problem of partitioning 159 Extension beyond persons? 164 9 Democracy and Constitutionalism 167 Democracy and constitutionalism 170 Democracy and political rights 175 Democracy and civil rights 178 Democracy and property rights 183 Democracy and independent authority 185 Conclusions 187 10 The Obligations of Democracy 189 Political obligations in a democracy 191 Being outvoted 195 Obligations and political community 200 Is there an obligation to bring about democracy? 206 11 An Ideal of Democracy? 211 Guide to Further Reading 219 Bibliography 222 Index 232 Acknowledgements I have acquired many debts in writing this book. Peter Jones, co editor of this series and a long-standing friend, has helped me over many years. He has been unstinting with advice, constructive in criticism and supportive throughout. My publisher, Steven Kennedy, has been patient above and beyond the call of duty. There must have been many occasions on which he will have thought that, in the race between Achilles and the tortoise, Achilles would never catch up. I thank him for his understanding. I do not follow the current fashion in thinking that teaching and research are incompatible activities. Indeed, not only do I find I learn much myself from trying to put my thoughts into order, but I am constantly intrigued by the insights that students bring to the logic of democratic theory. In recent years at the University of Essex I have taught much of this material to my graduate students in my course 'Political Principles and Public Policy' as well as lecturing on democratic theory to first-year students in the 'Introduction to Politics' course. I have always enjoyed the experi ence, and I hope the same can be said for those who have taken the courses. I have also given various papers related to this work at different universities, including Cambridge, City University Hong Kong, East Anglia, Essex and the London School of Economics. I am grateful to the participants on all occasions for the constructive dis cussions I have had. I have learnt many things from conversations and discussions with colleagues at Essex, especially Michael Freeman, Tony King and Hugh Ward. In addition, a number of people have kindly read, sometimes in great detail, all or part of the draft manuscript. They include: David Beetham, Ian Budge, David Held, Ron Johnston, Geraint Parry andJohn Street, as well as an anonymous publisher's reviewer. Their comments were always pertinent and acute, and VB Vlll Acknowledgements I hope they see some signs of their influence in this version. I am particularly grateful to those where I have ventured, and some times even persisted, in disagreeing with their views. One person who read the draft manuscript was the late Martin Hollis, who offered comments that were typically astute. Although I had been familiar with his work for many years, I came to know him personally when I worked at the University of East Anglia. He combined philosophical rigour with a wide understanding of the social sciences and a deep commitment to the values of a critical, academically independent educational system. He will be deeply missed by many. Throughout the period of writing Jan Harris has been a constant companion, but the writing itself has all too often intruded upon time that we should have had together. That is why I only give two cheers for democracy. ALBERT WEALE 1 Introduction: Democracy and Political Theory In the last twenty years, there has occurred a 'global resurgence of democracy' (Diamond and Plattner, 1996). The collapse of commu nism in central and eastern Europe, the democratization of Latin America and the transformation of some African one-party systems into multi-party systems have had profound effects upon patterns of government throughout the world. Democratization in places as diverse as Zambia, Argentina, Poland and South Korea has occurred with a speed and vigour that has surprised informed and knowledgeable observers. Formerly closed, authoritarian political systems have become open to new influences and political ideas. These events and trends have prompted many observers in recent years to claim that 'we are all democrats now', having reached 'the end of history' (Fukuyama, 1989) or, to put the point less poetically but more accurately, the end of political controversy about systems of government. Democracy - it would seem - has ceased to be a matter of contention and has become a matter of convention. Yet, however superficially appealing this judgement may seem, it needs to be qualified in various ways. Firstly, it is clear that the legacy of authoritarian rule is far from extinct. In the lead up to the hand over of Hong Kong from the UK to China, the Chinese government installed its own appointed legislative body to replace the democratically elected legislative council. Within China itself, political dissent has been suppressed, most notably in the violent putting down of the democracy demonstrations in Tiananmen Square and the subsequent persecution and imprisonment of polit ical dissidents. Moreover, the 1990s appear to have witnessed a slowing down in the rate of democratization compared to the 1980s
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