Defending and Defining the Faith: An Introduction to Early Christian Apologetic Literature

292 Pages·2020·2.934 MB·English

by  D. H. Williams

Defending and Defining the Faith:
An Introduction to Early Christian Apologetic Literature

D. H. Williams

Print ISBN-13: 9780190620509

Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: July 2020

DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190620509.001.0001

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Contents
Defending and Defining the Faith: .......................................................................................................... 1
An Introduction to Early Christian Apologetic Literature.................................................................... 1
D. H. Williams ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Print ISBN-13: 9780190620509 ................................................................................................................ 1
Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: July 2020 .............................................................................. 1
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190620509.001.0001 ............................................................................................ 1
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 10
Narrowing Definition ............................................................................................................................ 10
Titles of Apologies ................................................................................................................................. 14
(p.13) Premodern Apologia .................................................................................................................... 15
Pagans and Paganism ............................................................................................................................ 16
Limitations ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Notes: ................................................................................................................................................... 19
Matters of Definition and Qualification: An Elementary Review .......................................................... 23
Legalities of Defense ............................................................................................................................. 25
Jewish Hellenism ................................................................................................................................... 26
Apology as a Genre ................................................................................................................................. 26
Specifying Apologetic ............................................................................................................................ 28
Who Was the Intended Audience? ....................................................................................................... 29
A Written Culture of the Word ............................................................................................................. 31
Means of Dissemination ....................................................................................................................... 33
Notes: ................................................................................................................................................... 34
The Roman World of Early Christianity ..................................................................................................... 39
Religio and Pietas .................................................................................................................................. 40
Theologia fabularis, theologia naturalis, and theologia civilis ............................................................... 43
Pagan Space and Time ...................................................................................................................... 44
(p.57) The Philosophical Side of Polytheism ......................................................................................... 45
Daimones ................................................................................................................................................. 46
(p.62) Excursus: Pagan Monotheism? ................................................................................................... 47
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Notes: ................................................................................................................................................... 50
The Construction of Christian Self-Definition............................................................................................ 54
Clash and Similarity of Cultures ............................................................................................................ 55
Who Is the Oldest (Most Authentic)? ................................................................................................... 56
Old Covenant/New Covenant ............................................................................................................... 57
(p.75) The Oldest New Christian Era .................................................................................................... 58
The Sine Qua Non ................................................................................................................................. 59
(p.78) General Strategy of Anti-Pagan Apologetic Arguments ........................................................... 60
Notes: ................................................................................................................................................... 61
Persecution and the Ambiguity of Roman Law ......................................................................................... 64
The Great Fire of Rome ......................................................................................................................... 65
The Severity of Atheism ........................................................................................................................ 66
Plinius Caecilius Secundus: The Model of Romanitas ........................................................................... 68
Pliny Meets the Christians .................................................................................................................... 68
Trajan’s Response ................................................................................................................................. 71
Religio vs. Superstitio ............................................................................................................................ 72
Cannibalism and Incestuous Behavior .................................................................................................. 73
The Power of Slander ............................................................................................................................ 74
Popularity of Infamy ............................................................................................................................. 75
The Legal Standing of the Christians ..................................................................................................... 76
Notes: ................................................................................................................................................... 76
Earliest Christian Responses ..................................................................................................................... 84
Christian Growth ................................................................................................................................... 85
(p.115) Quadratus ................................................................................................................................... 85
Magic, Miracles, and Wonders ............................................................................................................. 86
(p.118) Christian Rebuttal ...................................................................................................................... 87
Aristides ................................................................................................................................................ 88
(p.122) Aristides’s Apology .................................................................................................................... 89
An Apology? .......................................................................................................................................... 90
(p.127) Preaching of Peter ...................................................................................................................... 91
(p.131) To Diognetus—An Apology? ..................................................................................................... 93
(p.133) In Sum ......................................................................................................................................... 94
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Notes: ................................................................................................................................................... 94
Christian Faith and Intellectual Culture .................................................................................................... 99
Justin the Martyr ................................................................................................................................... 99
The True Works of Justin .................................................................................................................... 100
How Many Apologies? ........................................................................................................................ 101
Intended Readership ........................................................................................................................... 101
Philosophy .......................................................................................................................................... 103
Demons vs. Daimones ......................................................................................................................... 104
(p.150) God and his Logos ................................................................................................................ 105
The Rescript of the Emperor Hadrian ................................................................................................. 106
Melito of Sardis ................................................................................................................................... 107
“New Decrees”? .................................................................................................................................. 108
Melito’s Apology ................................................................................................................................. 109
Apolinaris of Hierapolis ....................................................................................................................... 110
Notes: ................................................................................................................................................. 111
Hellenized Antagonism toward Hellenism .............................................................................................. 118
Tatian .................................................................................................................................................. 118
Tatian and Pagan Philosophy .............................................................................................................. 118
A Notable Antagonist .......................................................................................................................... 120
(p.169) Some Problems ..................................................................................................................... 120
Rome and Beyond ............................................................................................................................... 122
Notes on Apologetic Arguments ......................................................................................................... 122
Centerpiece of the Oration ................................................................................................................. 123
(p.177) Authority in the Oration ...................................................................................................... 124
Beyond Tatian and the Second Century .............................................................................................. 124
Another Oration to the Greeks ........................................................................................................... 125
Christians and Higher Learning ........................................................................................................... 126
Notes: ................................................................................................................................................. 126
Philosophy as Protagonist ....................................................................................................................... 131
Athenagoras of Athens ....................................................................................................................... 131
Readership .......................................................................................................................................... 131
(p.186) Argumentation ..................................................................................................................... 132
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(p.189) Platonism .............................................................................................................................. 133
(p.191) Demons .................................................................................................................................. 134
Biblical Texts ....................................................................................................................................... 134
Logos as Uncreated and Eternal ......................................................................................................... 135
Flagitia ................................................................................................................................................ 136
(p.197) Theophilus of Antioch .............................................................................................................. 137
Purpose and Content .......................................................................................................................... 137
Marcionsim ......................................................................................................................................... 138
Book I .................................................................................................................................................. 138
(p.203) Book II .................................................................................................................................. 139
(p.204) Inconsistency and Contradiction ......................................................................................... 140
Scriptural Authority and Exegesis ....................................................................................................... 140
The Logos ............................................................................................................................................ 141
And Wisdom ....................................................................................................................................... 142
Authority of Morality and Antiquity .................................................................................................... 143
Notes: ................................................................................................................................................. 143
Brilliant Diatribe ...................................................................................................................................... 151
Tertullian of Carthage ......................................................................................................................... 151
Heights of Apologetic .......................................................................................................................... 151
Christians in a Pagan World ................................................................................................................ 151
On the Games ..................................................................................................................................... 152
On Idolatry .......................................................................................................................................... 152
First Steps of Apologetic ..................................................................................................................... 153
A Pugilist with a Pen............................................................................................................................ 154
Book of Documentation ........................................................................................................................ 155
Apologeticus adversus Gentes ............................................................................................................ 156
Response to the Charges ....................................................................................................................... 157
(p.229) The Christian Contrast ............................................................................................................ 158
(p.231) Rome and Obviating Her Gods ............................................................................................... 159
Inverting History ................................................................................................................................. 160
(p.234) Theology of History .................................................................................................................. 160
De Testimonia Animae ........................................................................................................................ 161
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Tertullian the Martyr .......................................................................................................................... 162
Notes: ................................................................................................................................................. 163
Apology as Dialogue and Appeal ............................................................................................................. 169
Minucius Felix, Octavius ...................................................................................................................... 169
(p.245) The Debate Begins ................................................................................................................ 170
Caecilius Presents His Case ................................................................................................................. 171
Octavius Responds .............................................................................................................................. 172
The Case for Providence ..................................................................................................................... 172
The Gods, Rome, and Demons ............................................................................................................ 173
Judgment and the Resurrection .......................................................................................................... 174
Cyprian the Bishop Martyr .................................................................................................................. 174
That the Idols Are Not Gods ................................................................................................................ 175
(p.258) Who is the True God? .......................................................................................................... 176
On the Aging of the World .................................................................................................................. 177
Divine Judgment ................................................................................................................................. 178
The Christian Response ....................................................................................................................... 178
Notes: ................................................................................................................................................. 180
Clash of the Giants .................................................................................................................................. 186
Origen and Celsus ............................................................................................................................... 186
Polemical Shifts ................................................................................................................................... 187
More of Celsus’s Grievances ............................................................................................................... 188
Universality and Antiquity of the True Doctrine ................................................................................. 189
Against Celsus ..................................................................................................................................... 190
God and Word of God ......................................................................................................................... 191
Interpreting Scripture ......................................................................................................................... 192
Notes: ................................................................................................................................................. 193
North African Apologetics ....................................................................................................................... 197
Arnobius (of Sicca) .................................................................................................................................. 197
Date and Occasion .............................................................................................................................. 197
Why Do the Pagans Hate the Christians? ............................................................................................ 198
(p.292) Change and Antiquity .......................................................................................................... 200
Arnobius’s Knowledge of Christian Theology ...................................................................................... 200
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The God of Arnobius ........................................................................................................................... 201
Allegorization ...................................................................................................................................... 203
Atheism Again ..................................................................................................................................... 203
Lactantius ............................................................................................................................................ 204
God’s Avenging of the Persecutors ..................................................................................................... 205
Why Write the Divine Institutes? ........................................................................................................ 205
Persecution Applied ............................................................................................................................ 206
Finding Justice ..................................................................................................................................... 207
(p.312) The Christian God ................................................................................................................ 209
The Way of the Christian Faith ............................................................................................................ 210
(p.315) Incarnation ........................................................................................................................... 210
Sources ............................................................................................................................................... 211
(p.318) The Earliest Christian “Summa”? ...................................................................................... 211
Notes: ................................................................................................................................................. 212
Apologist Par Excellence ......................................................................................................................... 221
General Elementary Introduction: An Apologia? ................................................................................ 222
Prophetic Extracts ................................................................................................................................ 222
Reply to Hierocles (Contra Hieroclem) ................................................................................................ 224
The Demonstration of the Gospel ....................................................................................................... 226
Primary Readership ............................................................................................................................. 227
Purpose .................................................................................................................................................. 227
Arguments ............................................................................................................................................. 228
Embracing the Hebrews ...................................................................................................................... 229
Eusebius’s Apologetic Contributions ................................................................................................... 230
The Appearing of the Word, or Divine Manifestation ......................................................................... 230
(p.343) Description ................................................................................................................................ 231
At the Center ...................................................................................................................................... 232
Notes: ............................................................................................................................................. 232
Apologetic as Exhortation ....................................................................................................................... 238
Pseudo-Justin: “Cohortatio ad Graecos” ............................................................................................. 238
Other Known and Unknown Issues ..................................................................................................... 239
Structure ............................................................................................................................................. 240
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Ancient Authority ................................................................................................................................ 241
Plato .................................................................................................................................................... 242
Prophetic Preparation ......................................................................................................................... 242
In Sum ................................................................................................................................................. 243
Athanasius of Alexandria ..................................................................................................................... 243
Against the Pagans/On the Incarnation of the Word .......................................................................... 243
“Lover of Christ” ................................................................................................................................. 244
Purpose ............................................................................................................................................... 244
(p.363) On His Incarnation .............................................................................................................. 245
Opponents .......................................................................................................................................... 246
The End of an Era ................................................................................................................................ 247
Notes: ............................................................................................................................................. 248
The Unexpected Pagan Emperor ............................................................................................................ 254
Conversion to Paganism ....................................................................................................................... 254
(p.374) More Against the Christians ................................................................................................... 255
(p.379) Christians Respond .................................................................................................................. 257
Cyril of Alexandria, Against Julian ....................................................................................................... 258
Trinity in the Old Testament ............................................................................................................... 259
(p.384) Refuting Julian the Exegete ..................................................................................................... 259
Incarnation as Specific Revelation....................................................................................................... 260
(p.387) Marcarius the Magnesian ........................................................................................................ 261
Contest over Exegesis ......................................................................................................................... 262
Last Things .......................................................................................................................................... 264
Theological Illumination ...................................................................................................................... 264
To Conclude ........................................................................................................................................ 265
Notes: ................................................................................................................................................. 265
Cities in Conflict ...................................................................................................................................... 271
Ambrose of Milan ............................................................................................................................... 271
(p.399) Quintus Aurelius Symmachus ............................................................................................. 271
(p.401) Enter Ambrose ..................................................................................................................... 272
(p.406) Augustine of Hippo Regius ...................................................................................................... 274
A Mixed Multitude .............................................................................................................................. 275
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Books 1–10 ......................................................................................................................................... 276
(p.412) Augustine’s Responses ......................................................................................................... 277
Part I .............................................................................................................................................. 277
(p.415) Part II ................................................................................................................................ 278
(p.417) The Uncreated Word ........................................................................................................... 279
Notes: ............................................................................................................................................. 280
Fifth-Century Anti-Pagan Polemic Expressions ....................................................................................... 286
(p.422) Addressing Catastrophes ......................................................................................................... 287
Medicine for the Causes of Paganism ................................................................................................. 288
Maladies Cured ................................................................................................................................... 288
On Practical Virtue .............................................................................................................................. 290
Notes: ............................................................................................................................................. 290

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Introduction

At first glance it might seem redundant to publish a survey of the early Christian apologists; since there
are numerous studies in contemporary scholarship on specific ancient writers, as well as recent analyses
that look at Christian apologetic literature as a means for demarcating Christian identity in late antiquity.
As will become apparent, I am indebted to a number of these analyses. However, I discovered an
unexpected absence in the scholarly literature several years ago when I agreed to teach a seminar at
Baylor University on the early Christian apologists: there were no critical surveys available, and those
that offered general reviews were limited to apologetic literature produced in the second century, or to
specific writers active in the period before Constantine. In vain did I look for a learned yet general
overview that could serve as a secondary text that explained the literature, the theology, and cultural
implications of apologetic literature before and after the so-called peace of the church (AD 313).
Narrowing Definition

When it comes to classifying the apologists, questions have been rightly raised about which texts of the
early Christian period should be considered apologies. By way of a minor example, there is the
anonymous, late second-century letter, “To Diognetus” which has been simultaneously categorized in
both the corpus of the so-called “Apostolic Fathers” and as a work by one of the “Greek apologists.” This
fragmentary work fits only awkwardly in either category,1 thus underscoring the artificiality of its
placement in both. There is less confidence today, in the early twenty-first century, that the
purpose (p.2) and literary identification of an apology is self-evident. Literary and contextual matters are
more complicated than previously assumed, as were the interactions between religious groups in Roman
antiquity. Nonetheless we need to establish some criteria for discussing this literature for future inquiries
into the thought-world of early Christianity.

Though the term “apology” provides us with approximate parameters of meaning, we cannot assume why
and for whom apologetic texts were written. Our problems with definition are aggravated by the fact that
polemical and apologetic literature can be indistinguishable say, from works written in response to
conflicts with Christian heretical groups, such as Gnostics or Marcionites. Writers of apologies also often
wrote treatises against one or more of these groups.2 For this reason, some modern scholars continue to
count anti-heretical works as apologies. It is easy to see why, given that the number of texts that fit the
definition of an “apology” differs from one historian to the next.3
What might loosely be regarded as the first “collection” of writers noted for their apologetic works comes
from a tenth-century manuscript made for Arethas, the archbishop of Caesarea.4 Although the collection
was not designated as a corpus apologetarum, it seems evident that it was at least partly intended as one.
The manuscript includes two works of Clement of Alexandria, Exhortation, and the Tutor; two works
attributed to Justin, the Letter to Zena and Serenus and Oration to the Greeks;5 two works of Eusebius (of
Caesarea), the Preparation of the Gospel and a “book” against Hierocles; and two works by Athenagoras
of Athens, Supplication for the Christians and a sermon on the Resurrection.6 Neither the works of
Clement, the obscure letter to Zena and Serenus, nor the sermon can be considered truly apologetic,7 still,
it is evident that the scribe was copying only texts that he regarded as apologetic.
With the invention and widespread use of the printing press, individual editions of the early church
fathers’ writings, and even collections of (p.3) individual authors, become available as never before. The
efforts to publish patristic works included a few attempts at itemizing apologetic writings. In 1615, the
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