Decolonising Southern Africa: A History of Zambia's Role in Zimbabwe's Liberation Struggle, 1964 ...

419 Pages·2016·3.2 MB·English

Decolonising Southern Africa: A History of Zambia‘s Role in

Zimbabwe‘s Liberation Struggle, 1964-1979

by

Clarence Chongo

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
degree

Doctor of Philosophy

in the

Department of Historical and Heritage Studies at the

UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA

FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

Supervisor: Professor Alois S. Mlambo

Co-supervisor: Professor Ian R. Phimister

June 2015

© University of Pretoria
―War is a continuation of politics by other means‖—Mao Tse Tung, 1938

―The naked truth of decolonisation evokes for us the searing bullets and bloodstained knives

which emanate from it.‖—Frantz Fanon, 1965

―One person‘s terrorist is another‘s freedom fighter‖

ii

© University of Pretoria
Abstract

This thesis attempts to reconstruct the history of Zambia‘s role in Zimbabwe‘s liberation

struggle from 1964 to the latter part of 1979. In doing so, it examines key aspects of

Zambia‘s contribution to the liberation struggle by analysing the broad range of assistance

accorded to the Zimbabwe African People‘s Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African

National Union (ZANU), the two liberation movements which waged armed struggle against

the Rhodesian government. The study argues that the Zambian authorities employed a two-

pronged approach—war and diplomacy—in supporting Zimbabwe‘s liberation struggle.

However, for mainly economic reasons, they were more inclined to pursue diplomatic

approaches rather than exclusively relying on armed struggle in resolving the Rhodesian

crisis. They backed the armed struggle only to an extent that it was a necessary instrument to

coerce the Rhodesian government to the negotiating table, but this strategy had limited

success and created numerous tensions and contradictions. Some sections of Zimbabwe

nationalists accused Zambian President, Kenneth Kaunda, of undermining the liberation

struggle and supporting a particular nationalist leader. Thus, Zambia‘s role in support of

Zimbabwe‘s liberation struggle was shaped by the ideological, strategic and economic

interests of Zambia‘s ruling e lites which, in turn, shaped the attitudes, perceptions and

relationships among the nationalist leaders competing for power within the liberation

movements. Despite the numerous tensions and contradictions, and the enormous economic

risks associated with Zambia‘s commitment to Zimbabwe‘s liberation struggle, the study

concludes that it played a major role and contributed significantly to the liberation war.

iii

© University of Pretoria
Key Terms:

Armed struggle, Zambia‘s role, Kenneth Kaunda, Rhodesia‘s UDI, ZAPU, ZANU, Ian

Smith, liberation movements, Zimbabwe‘s liberation struggle, southern Africa, Lusaka

Manifesto, Robert Mugabe, Pan-Africanism, Joshua Nkomo, black majority rule, détente,

iv

© University of Pretoria
Dedication

I dedicate this thesis to the memory of my late father Felix Gibson Chongo, who never lived

long enough to witness my achievement, to my mother Unia Mweemba, who carried the

burden of raising me up and to Mubanga, Kanisha, Munshya and Mwiche, the constant

sources of joy.

v

© University of Pretoria
Acknowledgements

I owe many thanks to many people indeed. I owe tremendous amount of gratitude to my

supervisors Professor Alois Mlambo and Professor Ian Phimister for their proficiency in

providing guidance and support. They read every chapter I wrote and gave me their

comments which significantly helped to shape this thesis. I am greatly indebted to them for

their patience and skillful mentorship. To their persistence, they added the most generous

offer of help. I also wish to thank them for securing financial support for me from the

Oppenheimer Memorial Trust (OMT) which enabled me to undertake doctoral studies at the

University of Pretoria (UP). In particular, I sincerely thank Prof. Mlambo for being my

advocate within the complex university bureaucracy.

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to the Oppenheimer Memorial Trust. They generously

funded my PhD studies. Without their financial support, I could not have undertaken this

project. In particular, I thank Clare Digby of the Oppenheimer Memorial Trust. She always

kept in touch, constantly inquired about my progress and often facilitated payment of my

tuition fees, and ensured my research and subsistence expenses both in Zambia and South

Africa, were promptly and suf ficiently met. In addition, I thank the University of Pretoria

management for granting me a bursary in the final year of my studies.

It would have been much more difficult to write this thesis without the help of members of

staff at the University of Zambia library, the National Archives of Zambia (NAZ) and the

United National Independence Party (UNIP) Political Archives in Lusaka. They granted me

access to the materials. I wish to particularly mention Andrew Nyambe and Petwell

vi

© University of Pretoria
Munshya who were not only friendly but also facilitated my research at UNIP Archives.

They located and provided the files.

I would also like to thank all the members of staff in the Department of History at the

University of Zambia. My interaction with them was a constant source of encouragement,

inspiration and comfort. These included Dr. C. M Chabatama (late), Prof Bizeck J Phiri,

Prof Mwelwa C Musambachime, Prof. Francis B Musonda, Dr. Walima T Kalusa, Mr.

Friday E Mulenga, Dr. Euston K Chiputa, Dr. Webby S Kalikiti, Dr. Kamini Krishna, Dr.

Simeon Maravanyika, Ms Dorothy Mwansa, Mr. Alfred Tembo, Ms. Mailes Mbewe, Mr.

Mbozi Santebe (SDF), Ms. Martha Kayuni (SDF), and Ms. Jane Chansa. To those who

constructively criticised earlier drafts of this work, I am profoundly grateful. They shaped

my thinking.

I wish also to extend tremendous amount of gratitude to my wife, Mubanga and my children,

Kanisha, Munshya and Mwiche who endured long hours of my absence during the difficult

period of writing the thesis. I am deeply indebted for their patience, understanding, support

and encouragement. Lastly, I pay tribute to my brothers—Musenge and Katoma and

sisters—Mphande and Lupondo—for their unfailing support. My constant interaction with

Mr. Kennedy Zimba of the Department of Crop Science at UNZA, was always refreshing

and a source of perpetual encouragement to go an extra mile in pursuit of knowledge. To

those who supported me in diverse ways but whose names I have not mentioned, I equally

say thank you.

vii

© University of Pretoria
List of Abbreviations

AACUM All African Convention and Unity Movement of South Africa

AAPC All Africa People‘s Congress

AASO Afro-Asian Solidarity Organisation

ALC African Liberation Centre
ANC African National Congress of South Africa

ANC African National Council

ANC African National Congress of Zambia

BCO British Colonial Office

BSAC British South Africa Company

CBU Copperbelt University

CCP Chinese Communist Party

CECAS Conference of East and Central African States

CHOGM Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting
CIA The United States Central Intelligence Agency

CIAS Conference of Independent African States

CIO Rhodesian Central Intelligence Organisation

COREMO Comite Revolucionario de Mocambique

CPI Consumer Price Index

DRC Democratic Republic of Congo

FLCS Movement for the Liberation of French Somaliland

FNDP First National Development Plan

FNLA Frente Nacional de Libertacao de Angola
FLNA Front for the Liberation of Algeria

viii

© University of Pretoria
FLS Front Line States

FRELIMO Frente de Libertacao de Mocambique

FROLIZI Front for the Liberation of Zimbabwe

GDP Gross Domestic Product
GNP Gross National Product

GRAE Revolutionary Government of Angola in Exile

ICJ International Court of Justice

IDF Israeli Defence Forces

INDECO Industrial Development Corporation

LME London Metal Exchange

LONRHO London and Rhodesia Holding Company

MANU Mocambique Africana Nacional Uniao

MFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs
MHA Ministry of Home Affairs

MINDECO Mining Development Corporation

MPs Members of Parliament

MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola

NAM Non-Aligned M ovement

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

NCB National Coal Board

NCSC National Coal Supply Commission

NDP National Democratic Party

NLF National Liberation Front (North Vietnam)

NORTEC Northern Technical College

NP National Party (Rhodesia)

ix

© University of Pretoria
NP National Party (South Africa)

NRANC Northern Rhodesia African National Congress

NRDC Natural Resources Development College

NUZS National Union of Zambian Students
OPO Ovamboland People‘s Organisation

PAC Pan Africanist Congress

PAIGC Partido Africano da Independencia da Guine e Cabo Verde

PCA Partido Communista de Angola

PCC People‘s Caretaker Council

PDU People‘s Democratic Union

PLO Palestine Liberation Organisation

PLUA Partido da Luta dos Africanos

RCAF Royal Canadian Air Force
RDA Ressemblement Democratique Africaine

RST Roan Select Trust

SANNC South African Native National Congress

SAS Rhodesian Special Air Services

SNDP Second Nationa l Development Plan

SB Rhodesian Special Branch

SRANC Southern Rhodesian African National Congress

SWA South West Africa

SWANU South West African National Union

SWAPO South West African People‘s Organisation

TAZAMA Tanzania-Zambia Mafuta

TAZARA Tanzania-Zambia Railways

x

© University of Pretoria