Death is another country

411 Pages·2015·27.36 MB·English

Death is another country
Mortuary rituals and identity in Fazzan, Libya

Thesis submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
at the University of Leicester
by

Mireya González Rodríguez
July 2014

School of Archaeology and Ancient History
University of Leicester
Abstract

Abstract

Death is universal and all societies have developed some kind of death ritual which serves as a
formalisation of the death and an opportunity to mourn the dead. After the death of a person, there
is the need to deal with both the emotional and physical aspects of death, including the disposal of
the deceased. In modern times, death is removed from human experience. We are no longer
constantly faced with death, and when we are it is presented in a sanitised form. The death of a
family member, a friend, a neighbour, provides us with the experience of death and a reminder of our
existence and certain extinction. Death rituals reaffirm the central beliefs within culture. They are
drawn on previous practices and memories. Cemeteries and funerary monuments act as physical
memories; they become the focus of rituals and tie them to the social memory.

The Garamantes flourished in the region of Fazzan in the period c.500 BC- c. AD 500. Classical sources
provides a first contact with this civilisation, although as discussed in this thesis, archaeology is
offering the opportunity to combine what Graeco-Roman writers understood the Garamantes to be
and what they have left behind. My interest lays with their mortuary rituals, the Garamantian way of
death and how, at the time of death, the Garamantes saw themselves as one culture, following a
similar pattern of behaviour across time and space. The analysis of the cemeteries, place (structures)
and burial rituals, the treatment of the deceased and the offerings linked with death provides
information on the cultural identity of the Garamantes and their and social values, which have been
transmitted through the funerary record.
Acknowledgements

I want to thank my family for their continuous love, kindness, support and understanding, particularly
during the last five years. I must thank my mum and dad for encouraging me and my curiosity since I
was a girl and for reminding me to do what I love. Gracias mamá, papá, al final hemos llegado… I
would also like to thank my brothers and sisters for their endless patience, for listening to me talking
about ‘my dead people’ and for their support. I am sorry for the nervous week you had in 2011 during
the civil unrest in Libya. Javier, thank you for being with me through the last months of madness.

I would like to make a special mention to my godfather, who died prematurely last year after a short
battle with cancer. I thank him for his love, for making me laugh when I could not, and for being part
of my life. I am sorry you are not here with me. This thesis is dedicated to you, padrino, Antonio
Rodríguez Cid. Thank you.

I would also like to take this opportunity to thank my friends and colleagues at the School of
Archaeology and Ancient History. Many of them have said that this has been a long and hard road for
me. I could not have done it without their unconditional friendship. I would not want to leave
anybody out; you all know who you are. Thank you for being here all this time. And those of you
waiting for me to leave the land of the dead, thanks for being there, still.

And last but not least, my appreciation goes to David Mattingly and the Desert Migrations Project,
thank you for introducing me to the Garamantes, for taking me to Fazzan and for being here to see
me cross the line. My thanks to Dave Edwards and Ruth Young for being the first people to openly
comment on my project and offer me ideas and advice. And Graham Shipley for always giving me his
time when ambushed in the coffee shop first thing in the morning.

I also want to thank my examiners, Sarah Tarlow and Anna Leone, in advance, for taking the time to
read my work and giving me the opportunity to discuss it with them.
Contents

Acknowledgements I

Abstract II

List of Figures III

List of Tables VII

List of Graphs IX

Chapter 1 Death is another country. 1
1. 1. Introduction 1
Death is another country. General introduction to the research project
1.1.1. and study 1
1.1.2. Research questions 6
1.2. Aims of the thesis 7
1.3. Description of structure of the thesis 12

Chapter 2 Research context: archaeology of death, memory and cultural identity 14
2.1. Literature review on the archaeology of death and burial 14
2.1.1. Funerary rituals, memory and commemoration 14
2.1.2. Cultural identity and social memory 19
2.2. Archaeology of Fazzan: the people and the landscape 26
2.2.1. The place: Fazzan and the Wadis Al-Ajal and Tanezzuft 26
2.2.2. The people of Fazzan 29
2.2.3. The Garamantes in the Graeco-Roman sources 30
2.2.4. Archaeological evidence of the Garamantes 34
2.2.5. The people of Fazzan: a Garamantian civilization? 45
2.3. Archaeology of death in Fazzan: Previous research in the area 53
2.4. Summary of Chapter 2 59

Chapter 3 Methodology and Typologies 60
3.1. Methodology 60
3.1.1 Cemeteries and funerary structures 60
3.1.2. Analysing the individual burials 64
3.2. Datasets and accessibility 71
3.3. Typologies of funerary structures and cemeteries in Fazzan 73
3.3.1. Tomb typologies 74
3.3.2. Cemeteries typologies 79
3.3.3. Funerary furniture 85
3.4. Summary of Chapter 3 90

Chapter 4 The place of the dead 91
4.1. The spatial dimensions of mortuary practice 91
4.2. Conceptualising place, memory and identity 93
4.2.1. Space and place 93
4.2.2. Emotion, memory and commemoration 94
4.2.3. Considering identity 94
4.2.4. The place of the dead 95
4.3. The funerary landscape of the Wadi al-Ajal 97
4.4. The development of funerary areas in Fazzan 128

Chapter 5 Cemeteries in the Wadi al-Ajal 134
5.1. Case Studies in the Wadi al-Ajal 134
5.1.1. The cemeteries in the vicinity of Jarma: Saniat Bin Huwaydi 136
5.1.2. The cemeteries in the Jarma Escarpment 143
5.1.3. The cemeteries at Watwat 154
5.1.4. The cemeteries at Zinkekra 170
5.1.5. The cemeteries at Taqallit 180
5.2. Patterns in burial composition: tomb groups and socio-cultural groups 195

Chapter 6 Spatial analysis of funerary assemblages in the Wadi al-Ajal 208
6.1. Introduction, aims and methods 208
6.1.1. The human remains 209
6.1.2. Description of the primary analytical techniques: sector spatial analysis 209
6.1.3. The grave goods in Garamantian tombs 210
6.1.4. Grouping of artefacts 211
6.1.5. Pottery typology 211
6.1.6. Comments on the statistics of the funerary assemblages 212
6.1.7. Remarks on the cemeteries 212
6.2. Saniat bin Huwaydi 214
6.2.1. General description of the dataset 214
6.2.2. Material culture 215
6.2.3. Comments and alterations on the published data 218
6.2.4. Results of the sector spatial analysis 219
Comments on the statistics of the funerary assemblages in Saniat bin
6.2.5. 236
Huwaydi
6.3. Jarma escarpment and Royal Cemeteries 238
6.3.1. General description of the dataset 238
6.3.2. Material culture 239
6.3.3. Funerary elements outside the tombs 244
6.4. Watwat 258
6.4.1. General description of the dataset 258
6.4.2. Material culture 260
6.4.3. Comments and alterations on the published data 267
6.4.4. Results of the sector spatial analysis 268
6.5. Zinkekra 280
6.5.1. General description of the dataset 280
6.5.2. Material culture 281
6.5.3. Results of the sector spatial analysis 285
6.6. Taqallit 291
6.6.1. General description of the dataset 291
6.6.2. Material culture 292
6.6.3. Results of the sector spatial analysis 301
6.7 Summary and conclusions 309

Chapter 7 Death in Fazzan: some conclusions 318

Appendix A Classical Sources i
Appendix B Summary of skeletal remains mentioned in Chapter 5 vi
Appendix C The funerary landscape of the Wadi Tanezzuft xxxiii

Bibliography
List of Figures Page

Figure 1.1 Satellite images of Libya showing the location of the Wadi al-Ajal 2

Figure 2.1 Offerings being made in the vicinity of Jarma in the winter of 2010 21
Figure 2.2 Map of Libya with location of study areas 26
Figure 2.3 Contemporary views of the Wadi al-Ajal 28
Figure 2.4 Architectural elements from Garama 36
Figure 2.5 Satellite image showing a fortified village and associated gardens 37
Figure 2.6 Foggara shafts in Taqallit 38
Figure 2.7 Schematic drawing of the foggara system 39
Figure 2.8 Map of North East Africa showing locations of different genetic profiles 43
Figure 2.9 Possible Garamantian inscriptions at Taqallit 49
Figure 2.10 Garamantian anthropomorphic art 51

Figure 3.1 Spatial analysis of grave goods in 16 sectors (rectangular chamber) 68
Figure 3.2 Spatial analysis of grave goods in 16 sectors (circular chamber) 68
Figure 3.3 Spatial analysis related to position of the body (WE alignment) 69
Figure 3.4 Spatial analysis related to position of the body (EW alignment) 69
Figure 3.5 Cairn in UAT009 75
Figure 3.6 Type 2 shaft tomb in Zinkekra and Type 3 drum at Taqallit 75
Figure 3.7 Stepped tomb in Taqallit and mid-plaster in GSC031 76
Figure 3.8 Antenna tomb in the Wadi Tanezzuft 77
Figure 3.9 Tomb morphological typology 78
Figure 3.10 Cemetery morphological typologies 80
Figure 3.11 Dispersed cairn in Taqallit 81
Figure 3.12 Dispersed escarpment cemetery in Taqallit 81
Figure 3.13 Aerial photograph of TAG001 82
Figure 3.14 Type 4 nucleated cemetery in Watwat 82
Figure 3.15 Aerial photograph of GSC030 83
Figure 3.16 Type 7 cemetery GSC031 84
Figure 3.17 Mudbrick cemetery TAG012 84
Figure 3.18 Offering table and stelae in Taqallit 85
Figure 3.19 Example of rough Type 3 offering table in Watwat 86
Figure 3.20 Offering tables morphological typologies 87
Figure 3.21 Stele morphological typologies 89

Figure 4.1 Example of annotations for Chapter 4 figures 97
Figure 4.2 Places in the Wadi al-Ajal 98
Figure 4.3 Chronological map of the cemetery sites at In Tafarat, Ad Tamalalat and 101
Tinda
Figure 4.4 Typological map of the cemetery sites at In Tafarat, Ad Tamalalat and Tinda 101
III
Figure 4.5 Chronological use of cemetery sites in sectors Ad-Disa, Taqallit and Al-Hatiya 104
Figure 4.6 Typological map of the cemetery sites at Ad-Disa, Taqallit and Al-Hatiya 104
Figure 4.7 Chronological use of cemetery sites in Al-Ghrayf and Watwat 107
Figure 4.8 Typologies of the cemetery sites in sectors Al-Ghrayf and Watwat 107
Figure 4.9 Jarma area indicating the chronology of sites 109
Figure 4.10 Cemeteries in the sector of Jarma 109
Figure 4.11 Chronological use of cemetery sites in sectors of Tuwash and Al-Fugar 111
Figure 4.12 Typologies of the cemetery sites in sectors Tuwash and Al-Fugar 112
Figure 4.13 Chronological use of cemeteries in Al-Khara'iq and Qaraqra 114
Figure 4.14 Cemetery typologies in the escarpment area of Al-Khara'iq and Qaraqra 114
Figure 4.15 Chronological use of cemetery sites in Takarkiba, Al-Fjayj and Larku 116
Figure 4.16 Typological use of the cemetery sites in Takarkiba, Al-Fjayj and Larku 117
Figure 4.17 Chronological use of cemetery sites in Al-Qraya and Al-Qsir 119
Figure 4.18 Typological use of the cemetery sites in Al-Qraya and Al-Qsir 119
Figure 4.19 Chronological use of the sectors of Ar-Raqayba and Bintbaya 121
Figure 4.20 Typological use of the sectors of Ar-Raqayba and Bintbaya 122
Figure 4.21 Chronological use of the sectors of Al-Zuwiya and Qal'at 124
Figure 4.22 Typological use of the sectors of Al-Zuwiya and Qal'at 124
Figure 4.23 Chronological use in the sectors of Ikhlif and Bin Harith 126
Figure 4.24 Typological use in the sectors of Ikhlif and Bin Harith 126
Figure 4.25 Relation of foggara lines and absence of cemeteries in the escarpment 129

Figure 5.1 Sites in the vicinity of Jarma and the location of Saniat bin Huwaydi 136
Figure 5.2 Different phases of GER011 and mortuary furniture 137
Figure 5.3 Examples of Type 3 and Type 4 tombs in GER011 138
Figure 5.4 Cemetery sites in the area of Jarma escarpment 144
Figure 5.5 Plan of the Royal Cemetery indicating excavated tombs 147
Figure 5.6 Offering table and stelae from the Royal Cemetery 147
Figure 5.7 Plan and section of excavated stepped tomb GSC031.T7 149
Figure 5.8 Stepped tomb GSC030.T8 with stelae 149
Figure 5.9 Type 3 cairn GSC042.T1 153
Figure 5.10 Map of excavated sites in Watwat 155
Figure 5.11 Mausoleum at Watwat and reconstruction of the portico 156
Figure 5.12 Aerial photograph of UAT003 157
Figure 5.13 Details of burials and materiality in the tombs of Watwat 160
Figure 5.14 Mummified remains in UAT008.T84 showing matting over the body 166
Figure 5.15 Zinkekra cemetery areas 171
Figure 5.16 Location of cemeteries around Zinkekra 173
Figure 5.17 Lined shaft ZIN220.T6 and irregular shaft ZIN220.T8 174
Figure 5.18 ZIN218.T1, lined shaft with adolescent and grave goods 175
Figure 5.19 Burial ZIN220.T18 176
Figure 5.20 Cemetery sites in the Taqallit headland 180
Figure 5.21 Taqallit embayment showing burial typologies 185
Figure 5.22 Tombs in TAG001 186
IV
Figure 5.23 Distribution of funerary furniture at Taqallit 194

Figure 6.1 Sectors typology for spatial analysis of tomb assemblages 210
Figure 6.2 Sectors with relation to the position of the body 210
Figure 6.3 Examples of lamps recovered from Saniat bin Huwaydi 216
Figure 6.4 Example of local ware from Saniat bin Huwaydi 217
Figure 6.5 Faience finds from GER011 217
Figure 6.6 Schematic representation of T17 showing position of artefacts within the 222
tomb
Figure 6.7 Map of Jarma escarpment with the location of excavated cemetery 238
Figure 6.8 Finewares from the 'Royal Cemetery' 240
Figure 6.9 GSC031.T40 Garamantian pottery recovered outside the tomb 240
Figure 6.10 Local wares from grave assemblages at the 'Royal Cemetery' 241
Figure 6.11 Glass vessels recovered from the tomb GSC030.T8 242
Figure 6.12 Wooden bowl from GSC042.T1 246
Figure 6.13 Bowl in situ and ostrich egg-shell beads recovered from GSC048.T1 247
Figure 6.14 Map of excavated tombs in Watwat 259
Figure 6.15 Textile fragments from UAT008.T86 261
Figure 6.16 Fragments of dyed leather from UAT008.T22 261
Figure 6.17 Pyro-engraved gourd from UAT008.T32 and fragments of wooden vessel in 262
UAT008.T33
Figure 6.18 Examples of beads from Watwat 262
Figure 6.19 Amphora recovered in UAT008.T19 264
Figure 6.20 Wheelmade bowl from UAT008.T32 (left) and African Slip Ware with 264
impression of basketry (lid?) from UAT050.T5
Figure 6.21 Lamp (with gladiator theme decoration) from UAT008.T5 265
Figure 6.22 Glass unguentarium from UAT008.T32 265
Figure 6.23 Glass vessels from UAT050.T5 267
Figure 6.24 Amphorae in situ in UAT008: T19 (top right) and T86 (left and bottom right) 269
Figure 6.25 Representation of UAT008.T5 (left) and UAT050.T5 (right) with reference to 270
sectors and position of the body
Figure 6.26 Fineware in situ from UAT050.T5 271
Figure 6.27 Iron tweezers from UAT008.T22 274
Figure 6.28 UAT008.T22: Example of leather recorded in situ 275
Figure 6.29 UAT008.T84 showing the association of the matting over the textile 277
Figure 6.30 Pyro-engraved gourd recovered from ZIN350.T16 281
Figure 6.31 Textiles recovered from ZIN220.T19 (left) and ZIN220.T4 282
Figure 6.32 ZIN218.T1 showing matting and detail of the wooden baton and cord 282
Figure 6.33 Wooden vessel and head-rest 283
Figure 6.34 Ceramic vessel from ZIN218.T1 284
Figure 6.35 Sample of glass and ostrich egg-shell beads recovered from ZIN220 284
Figure 6.36 ZIN218.T1 showing location of pottery vessel 285
Figure 6.37 Burials in ZIN220 mentioned in this section: T18 (left) and T19 (right) 286
Figure 6.38 Details of organic remains recovered at Zinkekra 287
V
Figure 6.39 Wooden headrest in situ (left) and detail 288
Figure 6.40 Amphorae in situ, recovered from TAG012 293
Figure 6.41 ARS dish with incised decoration from TAG012.T3 294
Figure 6.42 Flagons recovered from excavated tombs in TAG001 294
Figure 6.43 Incense burner from TAG001.T232 295
Figure 6.44 Glass rhyton excavated in TAG012.T12 295
Figure 6.45 Example of textile fragments from Taqallit 296
Figure 6.46 Tombs TAG006.T1 (left) and TAG006.T2 (right) showing traces of leather 297
Figure 6.47 Wooden bowl in TAG001.T239 (left) and remnants of baskets in TAG001 297
Figure 6.48 Copper alloy ornament from TAG012 (left) and finger rings from 298
TAG001.T236
Figure 6.49 Human remains of adult female with carnelian necklace 299
Figure 6.50 Beaded belts from TAG001.T237 (left) and TAG001.T244 (right) 300
Figure 6.51 Labret recovered in TAG0106.T2 300
Figure 6.52 Flagon in situ with reference to human remains in TAG001.T240 and 302
TAG001.T244
Figure 6.53 Incense burner in situ in TAG001.T245 303
Figure 6.54 Belts recorded in situ in TAG001.T237 and T244 305
Figure 6.55 TAG063.T8, female with ochre 307
Figure 6.56 Distribution of funerary furniture in Taqallit 308

VI