Death and Architecture: The Pre-Pottery Neolithic A Burials at WF16, Wadi Faynan, Southern Jordan

29 Pages·24.068 MB·English

by  Mithen S. et al.

Chapter 6
Death and Architecture: The Pre-Pottery Neolithic
A Burials at WF16, Wadi Faynan, Southern Jordan

Steven   Mithen , Bill Finlayson , Darko Maric ] evic 8 , Sam   Smith ,
Emma Jenkins , and Mohammad   Najjar
number of burials located at this settlement is unusually
INTRODUCTION
high for a PPNA site. It stands at around forty burials found
The neolithic of the Levant marks the earliest appear- within the limits of the excavation (T able 6.1) , but the total
ance of sedentary farming communities in the world. number of burials must be higher, considering the spatial
The transition from hunting-gathering to farming began and stratigraphic extent of the unexcavated part of the
between 20,000 and 10,500 years ago, the latter marking settlement. The excavation report is still undergoing prep-
the start of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) period, aration, and osteological analysis has yet to be undertaken.
during which domesticated cereals, sheep, and goat begin As such, any interpretation of this data set remains both
to appear (Kuijt & Goring-Moris 2002 ). Whether there incomplete and provisional. But even from the evidence
was a relatively rapid transition during the preceding Pre- currently available, WF16 contributes greatly towards our
Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) period (11,700–10,500 BP), knowledge of PPNA burial and the transformation in
perhaps as a response to the dramatic global warming mortuary practice across the hunter-gatherer–farming
that marks the end of the Pleistocene, or a more gradual lifestyle transition in southwestern Asia.
emergence arising from long-term subsistence intensi- We will show that the relationship between the living
fi cation during the Epipalaeolithic (20,000–11,700 BP) and the dead at WF16 was defi ned not only by the dif-
remains an issue of contention (for general reviews see ferent ways in which the people were treated at death,
Mithen 2003 ; Barker 2006 ) . It is undisputed, however, but also through diverse attitudes towards their remains
that the transition to sedentary farming lifestyles encom- for a prolonged period post-mortem. The roles played by
passed all aspects of economy, technology, architecture, memory, curation, secondary intervention, and manipu-
social organisation, ideology, and ‘culture’ in the widest lation of human remains created multiple layers of mor-
possible sense. Archaeological evidence indicating that tuary practice at WF16, which was also part of the life of
attitudes towards life and death were transformed as part the settlement itself, with real consequences for its liv-
of this process should not be surprising as the harvesting ing community. This is best seen through the manner in
and then sowing of domesticated crops are fundamen- which the dead continued to be part of the settlement
tally related to manipulating the process of regeneration. through careful choreography of burials, the treatment of
The documentation and interpretation of the human remains, and the repeatedly changing archi-
Epipalaeolithic, PPNA, and PPNB mortuary evidence is tectural make-up of the settlement the burials were posi-
inevitably constrained by the quality and quantity of data tioned within.
available. This is notably limited for the PPNA period,
which many see as the critical phase of transition from
hunter-gatherer to farming lifestyles. In this contribution, PPNA AND PPNB MORTUARY PRACTICES
we present new evidence concerning PPNA mortuary While noting the absence of documented PPNA ceme-
practices from the site of WF16 in southern Jordan. The teries, Kuijt and Goring-Morris (2 002 ) drew on evidence
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THE PRE-POTTERY NEOLITHIC A BURIALS AT WF16
Table 6.1. Table of burials at WF16
F8, Context 298 , Structure F8, Evaluation Trench 2
(cid:85) Cut into redeposited gravel, with the skull protruding through the fl oor of a PPNA structure and stratigraphically sealed by
two PPNA fl oors and associated occupation. (cid:77) A NE-SW orientated arrangement of articulated and disarticulated bones with
disarticulated skull placed on a ‘pillow’ stone. (cid:218) Fragile especially in the upper part of the inhumation. At least two adults and a
juvenile appear to be present. (cid:153) Chipped stone artefacts including bladelets, a microlith and an awl.
F39910 , Structure F3992, Evaluation Trench 3
(cid:85) With its skull probably protruding through the fl oor of a PPNA structure and positioned on a ‘pillow’ stone; stratigraphically
sealed by a PPNA fl oor. (cid:77) A NE-SW orientated crouched inhumation on its right side with the skull facing NW. The skull was
disarticulated but in position by appearing to have been stretched from the body and then placed on a ‘pillow’ stone. (cid:218) Appears to
be a complete but fragile adult skeleton. (cid:153) Chipped stone artefacts.
O3 , Structure O31
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll and wall of a disused PPNA structure and sealed by defl ated overburden. (cid:77) Undetermined. (cid:218) Fragmentary
remains, appearing to consist of only two hand or foot bones, one long bone and several ribs
O4 , Midden O60
(cid:85) Cut into PPNA midden deposits and sealed by defl ated overburden. (cid:77) Probably a crouched inhumation; a mortar fragment
had been set on an edge appearing to form one side of the burial. (cid:218) Fragmentary – only some hand and feet bones survive. (cid:153)
Fragment of a mortar stone
O6 , Area O108
(cid:85) Cut through the wall of a PPNA structure and sealed by defl ated overburden. (cid:77) A NE-SW orientated crouched inhumation,
lying on its back with legs bent to the right and head facing to the left. (cid:218) Appears to be a complete, well preserved juvenile
skeleton. (cid:153) Fragment of a possibly worked animal bone.
O7 , Structure O31
(cid:85) Cut through PPNA infi ll inside the structure and sealed by a PPNA fl oor. (cid:77) A N-S orientated crouched inhumation on its left
side, facing east. (cid:218) Appears to be a complete but poorly preserved adult skeleton. (cid:153) A hammerstone, an El Khiam point and a
chipped stone pick.
O8 , Area O108
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure and sealed by defl ated overburden. (cid:77) A semi-crouched inhumation, orientated
E-W with its head at the east end facing NE. (cid:218) A fragmentary and poorly preserved juvenile skeleton appearing to have the lower
right arm, complete left arm, hand and unfused epiphyses missing. (cid:153) A green stone bead.
O9 , Structure O65
(cid:85) Cut through the wall of a PPNA structure and sealed by defl ated overburden. (cid:77) A crouched inhumation on its right side,
orientated E-W and facing north with its left hand under the skull. (cid:218) A fragmentary juvenile skeleton appearing to have only the
skull, arms, hands and feet present. (cid:153) Four chipped stone artefacts and a caprine pelvis.
O10 , Structure O84
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure and sealed by defl ated overburden. (cid:77) A N-S orientated crouched inhumation
on its right side with its head to the south facing east. (cid:218) Fragmentary remains with, at least, both scapulae, left side of the rib cage,
hands and feet missing; bones in a poor condition with the inhumation having been aff ected by animal burrowing. (cid:153) A chipped
stone artefact and a grooved ground stone object.
O17 , Midden O60
(cid:85) Cut into and sealed by PPNA midden deposits. (cid:77) A NW-S orientated crouched inhumation on its right side with the head
probably originally facing west, but cranium moved post-depositionally in front of the mandible to face south. (cid:218) An incomplete
and poorly preserved adult skeleton.
O24 , Area O108. Figure 6.17 .
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure and cut by Burial O8. (cid:77) A NW-SE orientated crouched inhumation on its
left side with its right hand underneath the skull facing SE. (cid:218) A slightly crushed juvenile skeleton. (cid:153) A marine shell bead.
O26 , Structure O84
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure and sealed by defl ated overburden. (cid:77) A NW-SE orientated crouched
inhumation on its right side with two large stones placed on top of the body, one on the pelvis and one over the ribcage. (cid:218)
An adult skeleton which appears to have been truncated above its lower ribs by defl ation. (cid:153) Two chipped stone artefacts, a
groundstone pestle and a fragment of red ochre.
O27 , Structure O114. F igure 6.7 .
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure and sealed by defl ated overburden. (cid:77) A N-S orientated crouched inhumation
on its right side, facing west. (cid:218) A poorly preserved juvenile skeleton, appearing to have some of its cranium missing. (cid:153) Two
marine shell beads and a marine shell.
(Continued)
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MITHEN ET AL.
Table 6.1. (Continued)
O28 , Structure O65. Figure 6.12 .
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure and sealed by defl ated overburden. (cid:77) A NE-SW orientated crouched
inhumation on its left side, facing SE. (cid:218) A crushed and fragmentary juvenile or young adult skeleton, with at least its right ribs and
foot missing, and both humeri in a fragmentary condition. (cid:153) Four chipped stone artefacts and a large stone
O32 , Structure O72
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure and sealed by defl ated overburden. (cid:77) A N-S orientated primary crouched
inhumation on its right side, disturbed by the secondary deposition of multiple cranial fragments after the rearrangement of some
of the original bones. (cid:218) The secondary cranial fragments have been truncated at the crown; the primary adult burial is in poorly
preserved condition. (cid:153) Seven chipped stone artefacts (core, blades or bladelets and El Khiam points), two animal bones, stone
bead.
O35 , Structure O113. F igure 6.15 .
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure and cut by a robber pit, then sealed by overburden. (cid:77) A N-S orientated
crouched inhumation on its left side, facing east. (cid:218) Although truncated and crushed by the robbing activity, the juvenile skeleton
appears reasonably well-preserved, with gypsum-like concretion on its right ribs.
O36 , Structure O83. F igure 6.8 .
(cid:85) Cut through the wall of the PPNA structure and sealed by PPNA deposits. (cid:77) A NE-SW orientated crouched inhumation on its
right side facing SE, skeleton encased in mud lining and capping. (cid:218) A well-preserved adult skeleton with occasional black staining
visible on the bones. (cid:153) A green stone bead, a serrated blade and a possible phallic object.
O37 , Structure O83. F igure 6.9 .
(cid:85) Cut through the wall of the PPNA structure and sealed by defl ated overburden. (cid:77) A NW-SE orientated crouched inhumation
on its right side with its head facing NW and tilted downwards. (cid:218) A well-preserved juvenile skeleton apart from a truncation of
the crown of the skull. (cid:153) Two chipped stone bladelets and a marine shell bead.
O38 , Structure O83. Figure 6.10 .
(cid:85) Cut through the wall of the PPNA structure and cut by an Antique burial. (cid:77) A primary inhumation appearing to have been
originally crouched on its right side and orientated SW-NE, facing NW with a hand below the skull. (cid:218) A fragmentary infant
cranium on top of a heavily truncated primary burial of which only the skull, lower arm and hand appear to have survived; the
skull of the primary burial has a gypsum-like residue and black linear markings. (cid:153) A fragment of possibly worked animal bone.
O39, Structure O83. F igure 6.11 .
(cid:85) Cut through the wall of a disused PPNA structure and cut by a probable PPNA pit, then sealed by overburden. (cid:77) Secondary
burial of semi-articulated remains. Not clear whether of one or more individuals. Some of the bones placed in gypsum-lined
woven basket or cloth. ‘Excess’ gypsum found next to the skull. (cid:218) Relatively well preserved skeletal remains but in a jumbled
arrangement. The bones were lifted in blocks, some of which were coated in a gypsum-like substance. (cid:153) Three blades or bladelets,
an El Khiam point, a borer and a green stone bead.
O41 , Structure O53
(cid:85) Cut through the wall of a PPNA structure, cut by a PPNA pit and then sealed by overburden. (cid:77) An E-W orientated primary
inhumation crouched on its right side with the head originally to the west. (cid:218) An adult skeleton truncated across its upper body by
a cut interpreted as an exhumation pit used to remove the skull and upper body parts. (cid:153) Four blades.
O43 , Structure O19
(cid:85) Cut through the wall of the PPNA structure and Burial O93, and probably sealed by the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure. (cid:77)
A NW-SE orientated crouched inhumation on its right side with the head end to the NW. (cid:218) Poorly preserved and crumbly
probably adult skeleton. Possible gypsum-like substance noted adhering to the bones. (cid:153) A fragment of animal bone.
O44 , Structure O12
(cid:85) Disarticulated teeth, mandible and skull fragments scattered among the collapsed rubble of the PPNA structure and sealed by
further PPNA infi lling. (cid:77) Scattered fragments of a cranium and mandible. (cid:218) Well-preserved.
O47 , Area O108,Structure O75
(cid:85) Cut into a PPNA structure (mud-plaster bench) and sealed by PPNA make up deposits for an eroded structure. (cid:77) A NE-SW
orientated crouched inhumation on its right side with its left hand under the skull and infant cranium fragments scattered around
the body, perhaps deriving from an earlier and disturbed inhumation. (cid:218) A well-preserved adult primary burial with fragments of
an infant cranium. (cid:153) A chipped stone blade placed on the chest and a stone object.
O76 , Structure O72
(cid:85) Cut through the wall of a PPNA structure and sealed by PPNA deposits. (cid:77) A N-S orientated crouched inhumation on its left
side facing east, with both hands partially under the skull. (cid:218) Appears to be a complete but fragile adult skeleton. (cid:153) A chipped
stone blade and two marine shell beads.
O77 , Structure O114
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure, possibly cut by burial O27, and then sealed by overburden. (cid:77) A group of
disarticulated long bones with articulated unfused epiphyses. (cid:218) Reasonably well-preserved remains of a juvenile skeleton.
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THE PRE-POTTERY NEOLITHIC A BURIALS AT WF16
O78 , Structure O72
(cid:85) Human mandible within the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure and sealed by PPNA deposits. (cid:77) A disarticulated mandible. (cid:218)
Well-preserved.
O79 , Structure O72
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure and sealed by PPNA deposits. (cid:77) A N-S orientated crouched inhumation
on its left side facing east. (cid:218) An almost complete but very fragile infant skeleton, with a truncated skull and its lower left arm and
hand missing.
O80 , Structure O113. Figure 6.14 .
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure and sealed by PPNA deposits. (cid:77) A N-S orientated crouched inhumation on
its back with its head to the north and facing east, and with its legs bent eastwards. (cid:218) A well-preserved adult skeleton. (cid:153) Chipped
stone artefacts, including four blades, an animal bone and a lozenge-shaped stone object.
O81 , Structure O64
(cid:85) Cut through a PPNA sequence inside a structure and sealed by multiple PPNA fl oors and occupation deposits. (cid:77) Probably a
N-S orientated crouched inhumation on its left side facing east. This was only partially exposed, being observed through a later pit
cut that had allowed access to the burial. (cid:218) A well-preserved adult skeleton (unexcavated).
O82 , Structure O65. Figure 6.13 .
(cid:85) Cut through a possible fl oor inside a PPNA structure and sealed by PPNA deposits. (cid:77) A WNW-ESE orientated crouched
inhumation on its right side with its right hand under the skull facing west. (cid:218) Appears to be a well-preserved juvenile skeleton
apart from a truncated left side of the skull. (cid:153) Six chipped stone artefacts, including fi ve blades, two stone objects, two bone beads,
a bone point and a probable fox ulna.
O89 , Structure O83
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure and cut by an Antique burial. (cid:77) A N-S orientated and probably crouched
inhumation, on its left side facing west. (cid:218) A well-preserved but truncated infant skeleton.
O93 , Structure O19. F igure 6.6 .
(cid:85) Cut through the wall of a PPNA structure and cut by Burial O43. (cid:77) A NW-SE orientated crouched inhumation on its left side,
with its right hand partially under the skull. (cid:218) Appears to be a complete but fragile adult skeleton. (cid:153) Two chipped stone blades, a
green stone bead and a worked animal bone.
O101 , Midden O60
(cid:85) Placed within and sealed by PPNA midden deposits. (cid:77) A NW-SE orientated crouched inhumation, possibly on its right side. (cid:218)
A fragmentary juvenile skeleton, with its leg bones in a disturbed position. (cid:153) A stone bead.
O122 , Structure O84
(cid:85) Cut through the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure and sealed by defl ated overburden. (cid:77) Skeletal remains which are either
disarticulated or heavily disturbed. (cid:218) Fragments of a cranium, mandible and ribs.
O123 , Midden O60
(cid:85) An articulated human foot found within and sealed by PPNA midden deposits. (cid:77) Isolated. (cid:218) Articulated foot.
O124 , Structure O85
(cid:85) No visible cut and so either placed within the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure or suff ering from severe defl ation; sealed by
overburden. (cid:218) Fragmentary remains of an infant cranium.
O125 , Structure O72
(cid:85) No visible cut and so either placed within the infi ll of a disused PPNA structure or suff ering from severe defl ation; sealed by
overburden. (cid:218) Only right scapula, two right ribs and pelvis fragments present.
O126 , Structure O75
(cid:85) Found within the rubble fi lling a disused structure and sealed by PPNA midden. (cid:218) The fragmentary remains of at least one
cranium and possibly associated leg bones.
O128 , Structure O33
(cid:85) Disarticulated maxilla and skull fragments found within the rubble infi ll of a PPNA structure and sealed by further PPNA
backfi ll, fl oors and structures. (cid:77) Isolated fi nds at two diff erent levels of infi ll. (cid:218) Fragments of a maxilla and cranium.
O129 , Structure O45
(cid:85) Disarticulated teeth, mandible and skull fragments scattered within the collapse rubble of a burnt PPNA structure and sealed by
PPNA levelling and occupation deposits. (cid:218) Scattered fragments of a cranium and mandible.
Notes :
(cid:85) Summary of context and stratigraphy (for full details see Mithen et al. in preparation).
(cid:77) Field observations of position, orientation, or placement.
(cid:218) Field observations of bone preservation or surface modifi cation.
(cid:153) Field observations of small fi nds coming from burial fi ll (these are likely to include a mix of deliberate deposition and those
pre-existing within sediment used for the burial fi ll; further artefacts will be recovered from sieve residues of the fi lls. See Mithen
et al. in prep. for full discussion).
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MITHEN ET AL.
from Jericho (Kunth & Röhren-Entl 1 981 ), Netiv skulls at Nahal Hemar had been partially covered in black
Hagdud (Belfer-Cohen et al. 1 990 ), Hatoula, and Nahal asphalt in a geometric pattern (Arensburg & Hershkovitz
Oren to describe PPNA mortuary practices as having 1989 ). Some skulls had faces modelled in plaster adhered
been relatively standardised and diff erentiated between onto them, occasionally providing a realistic impres-
adults and children. After death, adults and children were sion of fl esh. A variety of techniques were used, these
buried without grave goods in individual interments; in appearing to vary between localities (Goren et al. 2001 ).
some cases, the location of the skull appears to have been These included multiple plastering events, painting, and
marked, enabling this to be removed later without signif- inserting shells for eyes. Some skulls that had been plas-
icant disturbance to the post-cranial skeleton. Kuijt and tered lacked mandibles, resulting in a distorted face. Kuijt
Goring-Morris suggest that skulls may have been cleaned ( 2008 ) has used this to argue that the plastering of skulls
and used by the living community prior to re-burial, but had not been done to create portraits of specifi c indi-
acknowledge that this is ‘diffi cult to trace archaeologi- viduals. The re-burial of plastered and un-plastered skulls
cally’ (Kuijt & Goring-Morris 2 002 , 376). The archae- often occurred in caches, with a repeated pattern being
ological evidence is also insuffi cient to confi rm Kuijt found at ‘Ain Ghazal of three skulls in a row within the
and Goring-Morris’ suggestion that infants were placed southeast corner of a room and facing away from its cen-
in dedicatory positions within houses, such as founda- tre. In addition to skulls themselves, human masks, statues,
tions, while adults were predominately placed in intra- or and fi gurines played a prominent role in PPNB ritual
extra-mural locations. The absence of grave goods, burial activity. The most striking evidence of this is the two
of individuals, use of simple graves, and practice of skull caches of half-life-size plaster fi gures found within pits at
removal are interpreted as serving ‘to integrate commu- ‘Ain Ghazal (Tubb & Grissom  1995) .
nities and downplay socioeconomic diff erences between Kuijt and Goring-Morris ( 2002 , 397) argue that the
individuals and kin groups in the face of economic and type of multi-stage mortuary practices evident from the
social change’ (Kuijt & Goring-Morris 2002 , 377; see fur- PPNB were ‘planned in advance, often held in conjunc-
ther discussion in Kuijt 1996 ,  2000 ). tion by multiple households as part of a community
The mortuary practices of the PPNB period have festival, and require extraordinary levels of community
been more extensively documented in light of the larger involvement’. The deliberate removal of some or all of
number of burials from sites such as Jericho, ‘Ain Ghazal, the skeletal parts has been related to ancestor worship,
Aswad, Beidha, Jerf el Ahmar, Nahal Hamar, Yiftahel, Tell but what that might mean is not clear (Kuijt 2 008 ).
Halula, and Kfar HaHoresh. Continuing their review Watkins (1 992 ) has suggested that the appearance of
of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, Kuijt and Goring-Morris sub-fl oor burials may relate to new forms of residence,
( 2002 , 394)  described the mortuary practices of the ownership, and lineage. While the primary burial of an
PPNB as consisting of three inter-related systems: ‘(1) individual may be a household event, secondary mor-
the primary interment of adults, probably both males tuary rituals often cross-cut households and kin groups,
and females in single graves; (2) the interment of infants appearing to emphasise the community over the individ-
in single graves; (3) the secondary removal of some, but ual (Kuijt & Goring-Morris 2002 , 397). Recent analysis
not all, adult skulls from primary graves for some form of of dental data from Çatalhöyük (Pilloud & Larsen 2011 )
unknown ritual use with the eventual reburial in caches has indicated that the proposition that burials within a
of single or multiple skulls’. Rollefson ( 1983 ) has charac- single structure may be related to kin groups or families
terised a further form of burial, the ‘trash’ burial, where appears faulty, and that our ideas of Neolithic burial may
an individual appears to have been discarded in midden be overly simplistic.
deposits.
Kuijt and Goring-Morris (2 002 ) argue that infants
WF16: A PPNA SITE IN SOUTHERN JORDAN
appear to have been more frequently buried in ‘fi ll’ and
courtyard areas than within architecture, with a low inci- Wadi Faynan 16 (WF16) is a PPNA site currently dated
dence of skull removal, but some cases of infant burials between 11,600 and 10,200 BP located in southern Jordan
in dedicatory positions, such as within foundations, have (Finlayson & Mithen 2007) . It was discovered in 1996 as
been documented. a scatter of chipped and ground stone artefacts across the
Some of the removed skulls in the PPNB were ‘deco- surface of a knoll at the juncture between Wadis Faynan
rated’. Several, perhaps all, of those within a cache of six and Ghuwayr, immediately before the landscape climbs
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THE PRE-POTTERY NEOLITHIC A BURIALS AT WF16
Figure 6.1. Wadi Faynan, southern Jordan, looking west towards the Wadi Araba and showing the location of Neolithic
settlements.
to the Jordanian plateau, and in close association with the within structures that relate to a distinct entity, such as
PPNB and Pottery Neolithic settlements of Ghuwayr 1 a burial, are referred to as ‘Objects’, as in Burial O81
and Tell Wadi Feinan ( Figure 6.1 ). or Structure O45 ( Figure 6.4 ), except for two burials
The site was evaluated between 1997 and 2003 by test found during the evaluation of the site in Trenches 2
excavation including test-pitting, three trial trenches at and 3, which are referred to as Burial F8(298) and Burial
the peripheries of the settlement (Trenches 1, 2, and 3), F39910. The upper horizons of the structures were often
and a geophysical survey. It was found to have relatively severely defl ated and disturbed. It is likely that the struc-
deeply stratifi ed deposits with good faunal preservation as tural remains of a fi nal phase of PPNA activity has been
compared to other PPNA sites, a diverse material culture almost entirely eroded from the surface of the knoll, this
and presence of large structures, and burials (Finlayson & being represented by stone mortars on and near the sur-
Mithen  2007 ). face, a single free-standing building (O100) that had par-
An excavation covering the central area of the set- tially survived by having been constructed from a lower
tlement was undertaken between 2008 and 2010. This level within the base of an earlier structure (O75), and a
exposed a dense cluster of pisé-walled, semi-subterranean number of other much less well preserved circular struc-
structures (F igure 6.2 ), along with a monumental struc- tures (O111).
ture containing a central ‘trough’ and embedded grinding Although large samples of animal bones and plant
stones, the function of which remains unclear (Mithen remains have been recovered, the analysis of these has
et al. 2 011 ). The smaller structures appear to have served a not yet begun and hence the economy of the settlement
number of specifi c purposes, including storage and work remains to be determined; evidence from the 1997–2003
spaces, with a number of midden and extra-mural depos- site evaluation indicated a reliance on wild animals and
its ( Figure 6.3 ). All structures and clusters of contexts plants (Finlayson & Mithen 2007 ). The technology and
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Figure 6.2. Excavation of Wadi Faynan, April 2008, showing exposure of a dense cluster of pisé-walled structures and the large,
partly excavated sub-circular structure (O75) in the foreground.
Figure 6.3. Semi-subterranean, pisé-walled structures at WF16, April 2010.
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THE PRE-POTTERY NEOLITHIC A BURIALS AT WF16
Figure 6.4. Plan of WF16, showing dense cluster of semi-subterranean pisé-walled structures, the large sub-circular structure (O75),
and the later circular structure O100.
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MITHEN ET AL.
Figure 6.5. Distribution of burials at WF16.
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THE PRE-POTTERY NEOLITHIC A BURIALS AT WF16
Figure 6.6. Burial O93 from the northeast.
typology of the chipped stone along with twenty-nine A little less than half of these burials occur relatively
new AMS radiocarbon dates from the 2008–2010 exca- late in the stratigraphic sequence at WF16, being located
vation confi rm that the settlement remains are entirely immediately below the defl ated and disturbed horizons.
encompassed within the PPNA period. They had suff ered from erosion, many of the bones are
Excluding a group of six Antique (Nabatean- poorly preserved, and the level from which their burial
Byzantine) burials that were dug into the Neolithic pits had been cut is no longer present. The remaining
deposits and one probably Bronze Age burial, more burials were sealed by PPNA deposits. Basic contextual
than forty burials of adults, juveniles, and infants from and stratigraphic information for each of the Neolithic
a variety of contexts are thought to be PPNA in date. burials is given in T able 6.1 , while full details of their
Key information from field observations is summarised excavation will be contained within the forthcoming site
in T able 6.1 while F igure 6.5 illustrates their distribu- report (Mithen et al. in prep.).
tion and a sample is illustrated in Figures 6.6 – 6.17 . In The absolute chronology of the Neolithic burials at
the absence of formal osteological analysis, our defi- WF16 is yet to be established and their dating to the
nitions of adults, juveniles, and infants are made on PPNA is currently based on site stratigraphy, material
the basis of site excavation records. These document culture, and analogies in burial practice between those
instances of unfused epiphyses for juvenile skeletons burials that were securely sealed within the PPNA
and place recognisable neo-natal remains within the sequence and those that were surviving at the top of that
infant category but are necessarily restricted in their sequence. It is important to stress that the diff erences
level of detail. between the Antique burials and the Neolithic burials
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