Davis, Joshua, Benforado, Adam, Esrock, Ellen, Turner, Alasdair, Dalton, Ruth, van Noorden, Leon ...

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Citation: Davis, Joshua, Benforado, Adam, Esrock, Ellen, Turner, Alasdair, Dalton, Ruth, van
Noorden, Leon and Leman, Marc (2012) Four applications of embodied cognition. Topics in
Cognitive Science, 4 (4). pp. 786-793. ISSN 1756-8757
Published by: Cognitive Science Society
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-8765.2012.01225.x <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-
8765.2012.01225.x>
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TopicsinCognitiveScience(2012)1–8
Copyright!2012CognitiveScienceSociety,Inc.Allrightsreserved.
1 ISSN:1756-8757print/1756-8765online
DOI:10.1111/j.1756-8765.2012.01225.x
2
3
4
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6 Four Applications of Embodied Cognition
7
8
Joshua I. Davis,a,1 Adam Benforado,b Ellen Esrock,c Alasdair Turner,d
9
Ruth C. Dalton,e Leon van Noorden,f Marc Lemanf
10
11 aBarnardCollegeofColumbiaUniversity
12 bEarleMackSchoolofLaw,DrexelUniversity
13 cRensselaerPolytechnicInstitute
dUniversityCollegeLondon
14
eNorthumbriaUniversity
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fInstituteforPsycho-acousticsandElectronicMusic–IPEM,GhentUniversity
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17 Received9May2012;receivedinrevisedform31July2012;accepted13August2012
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19
Abstract
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Thisarticlepresentstheviewsoffoursetsofauthors,eachtakingconceptsofembodiedcognition
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into problem spaces where the new paradigm can be applied. The first considers consequences of
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embodied cognition on the legal system. The second explores how embodied cognition can change
23
howweinterpretandinteractwithartandliterature.Thethirdexamineshowwemovethrougharchi-
24 tecturalspacesfromanembodiedcognitionperspective.Andthefourthaddresseshowmusiccogni-
25 tionisinfluencedbytheapproach.Eachcontributionisbrief.Theyaremeanttosuggestthepotential
26 reachofembodiedcognition,increasethevisibilityofapplications,andinspirepotentialavenuesfor
27 research.
28
29 Keywords: Law; Fairness; Art; Literature; Music cognition; Rhythm; Built environment; Spatial
map;Embodiedcognition
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31
32
Tohelpillustrateembodiedcognition’spotentialsphereofinfluence,andtoinspirealter-
33
nativeavenuesforresearch,weprovidefourbriefessays.Thesefouressayssuggestwaysin
34
which embodied cognition can be applied to law, art and literature, the built architectural
35
environment,andmusiccognition,respectively.
36
37
38
39
40
Correspondence should be sent to Joshua Ian Davis, Barnard College of Columbia University. E-mail:
41
[email protected] 1
42
1J.I.D.editedandorganizedthearticle.Theorderofotherauthorsreflectstheorderofthesubsections,whichis
43
alphabeticalbyfirstauthor’slastname.
T O P S 1 2 2 5 B Dispatch:28.8.12 Journal: TOPS CE:Sangeetha
Journal Name ManuscriptNo. AuthorReceived: No.ofpages:8 PE:Remya
2 J.I.Davisetal.⁄TopicsinCognitiveScience(2012)
1 1. Lawandembodiment
2
3 1.1. AdamBenforado
4
5 Law students are taught that judgesand jurors are influenced bythe power of arguments:
6 outcomes in court are determined by how successfully each side marshals evidence and
7 appliestherelevantlegalprinciplestothefactsofthecase.Thus,anattorneymustappealto
8 themindsofhisaudiencetowin,butcansafelyignoretheirbodies.Anembodiedcognition
9 approach to law flips this traditional account on its head and asserts that the sensorimotor
10 experiences of legal actors are intimately tied to their abstract thinking. Inside the 2
11 courtroom, the hardness of the chairs, the brightness of the lighting, the smell of the floor
12 polish, the placement of the jury box, and the weight of files may all affect the proceedings
13 (Benforado,2010).
14 Consider a murder trial in which the defense counsel requests a recess after photographs
15 of the bloody crime scene are shown to the jury. During the break, jurors head to the bath-
16 rooms,wheretheyusethefacilitiesandthenwashtheirhands.Althoughconventionaldual-
17 ist legal analysis implies that hand washing is immaterial to a juror’s decision-making, an
18 embodied cognition perspective suggests that it might be critical. Moral purity and physical
19 purity are linked (Schnall, Benton, & Harvey, 2008). In one experiment, after watching a
20 disgusting movie clip, participants assessed various moral dilemmas (e.g., keeping money
21 foundin awallet). Halfof participantswere askedto washtheir handspriorto makingtheir
22 judgments and half were not. The simple act of soaping up made a big difference: those
23 who had cleansed themselves after being primed for disgust offered less-severe moral judg-
24 mentsthanthosewhohadnot.
25 Even before trial, an embodied cognition perspective on law suggests that bodily experi-
26 encesatkeymomentsinourjudicialprocessesmaysubtlybiasproceedingsandleadtoout-
27 comes that do not align with our purported values of fairness and equal treatment
28 (Benforado, 2010). Subtle hand gestures by police officers may encourage eyewitnesses to
29 make erroneous identifications (Broaders & Goldin-Meadow, 2010). And detectives drink-
30 ing hot coffee, rather than ice water, may assess suspects as more trustworthy and credible
31 duringinterrogations(Williams&Bargh,2008).
32 Future research is needed to investigate the robustness of embodied cognition effects
33 in specifically legal contexts and to understand the impact of interpersonal differences.
34 Only then can we tackle tough questions like whether we should pass new procedural
35 rules barring the imposition of certain sensorimotor experiences or redesign our
36 courtrooms to offer experiences conducive to generosity, trust, and careful consideration.
37 The further development of an embodiment perspective on law is not without costs.
38 Certain individuals and entities—particularly those who can afford high-priced trial con-
39 sultants—are likely to use insights from the field to manipulate jurors, judges, and others
40 to stack the cards in their favor. Similarly, we must be conscious that in revealing that
41 participants in our judicial system are not rational actors driven by reason alone, embodied
42 cognition research presents a challenge to the legitimacy of our legal institutions and
43 practices.
J.I.Davisetal.⁄TopicsinCognitiveScience(2012) 3
1 2. Embodimentinliteratureandvisualart
2
3 2.1. EllenEsrock
4
5 Imaginereadingafictionaboutaseamstress’handmovingthroughsoftfabricorstanding
6 in a museum gazing at a painting of a woman embroidering a handkerchief. One might
7 sense a physical tension in the fingers or the tactile quality of the cloth and feel somehow
8 immersed bodily in the work. Here, one would be imitating bodily—though a simula-
9 tion—what is represented in words or images. Twentieth century scholars paid little atten-
10 tion to such reports, for they regarded the cognitive activity of reading and viewing as
11 fundamentally nonbodily. However, scholarly attitudes are changing under the influence of
12 a broad set of scientific⁄philosophical theories that characterize cognition as embodied—as
13 inextricably involving bodily processes and being situated in a particular time and space.
14 Body-driven research into literature and the visual arts is now emerging, and it offers
15 insightsintomoregeneralareasofthesciences.
16 Theexperienceofhavingone’sbodilyboundariesextended,offeelingimmersedinliter-
17 ature and art receives attention in Esrock (2001, 2004, 2010, 2012), which proposes the
18 ‘‘transomatization’’asanalternativetosimulationaccountsoftheseexperiences(Fischer&
19 Zwaan,2008;Gallese,Fadiga,Fogassi,&Rizzolatti,1996;Glenbergetal.,2008).Intranso-
20 matizations,areader’s⁄viewer’sbodilyprocessesserveasanonimitative(‘‘trans-somatic’’)
21 substituteforcomponentsoftheverbal⁄visualworld.Thesebodilyprocessesincludebreath-
22 ing, muscular tensions, and all over awareness of the internal milieu (interoception), which
23 from some perspectives (Damasio, 1999) constitutes an emotion and carries a sense of self-
24 hood. As illustration of this substitution, a text reads: ‘‘Amy gazes at the rhythmic light
25 beams stroking the floor.’’ The reader who forms a transomatization would permit her
26 rhythmic experience of breathing to stand for Amy’s perceptual experience of the rhythmic
27 lightbeams.
28 Bodilyimmersionis onlyone lineof investigation intoembodiedreading⁄viewing.Keen
29 (2007) investigates empathy in literature, using a model of embodied cognition that consid-
30 ers the emotions as bodily, and this focus on bodily expression informs research like
31 Warhol’s (2003) on crying when reading and Freedberg and Gallese (2007) on visual art
32 perception.Suchworkdrawsimplicitlyontheoriesoflanguagethathavebecomefoundational
33 to embodiment studies: those of Lakoff and Johnson (1980, 1999), which hold that our
34 bodily experiences in the world are reflected in metaphors that govern language use and
35 concepts in all domains. This thesis has been the basis for Turner’s investigations into the
36 structures of narrative and the development of embodied cognitive architectures (Turner,
37 1996;Turner&Fauconnier,2002).
38 The literary⁄visual investigations of embodied cognition might be useful to other disci-
39 plinesbyilluminatingotherwiseunrecognizedareasofhumanthought,emotion,andbehav-
40 ior. This is because these esthetic works are complex constructions that afford especially
41 nuancedexperiencesofaffectandmeaning.Forexample,bystudyingtheprocessesofinter-
42 pretation and creation, cognitive scientists might enhance their understanding of how
43 somatosensory (trans-somatic) substitutes can help keep several streams of information
4 J.I.Davisetal.⁄TopicsinCognitiveScience(2012)
1 readilyavailableandhoweveninteroceptiveawarenessandbreathingplayaroleinregulat-
2 ingour cognitiveandaffective processingof externalobjects.Furthermore,themethodsfor
3 teaching embodied subjects how to read and view literature⁄art might reveal practices for
4 developingcognitiveandaffectiveskillsinotherareasoflife.
5
6
7 3. Experiencingthebuiltenvironment:Anembodiedapproach
8
9 3.1. AlasdairTurnerandRuthConroyDalton
10
11 Imagine visiting a building for the first time. This could be a building that encourages
12 pleasurable exploration, such as a museum or gallery, or your purpose might be common-
13 place and functional, to a hospital or airport. On crossing the threshold into this novel envi-
14 ronment, how do you begin to experience, understand, and structure the available sensory
15 information? Conversely, imagine arriving in a new city: how do you start to construct an
16 internal representation (or cognitive map) of the place? In other words, how is it that we
17 experience the built environment, especially locations characterized by significant spatial
18 complexity (numerous discrete spaces, highly interconnected, with indistinct overall struc-
19 ture,andthewholeunperceivablefromasinglevantagepoint)?
20 If we start with a hypothesis that we cognize complex, spatial environments by moving
21 through them, then two possible methodological approaches to this question are observing
22 people’s patterns of movement and simulative⁄experimental. In earlier work, Dalton
23 recordedthepathsofexperimentparticipantsnavigatingthroughvirtualsimulationsofcom-
24 plexbuiltenvironments(ConroyDalton,2003)andTurnerprogrammed‘‘cognitiveagents’’
25 to simulate real-world, explorative tasks (Turner, 2007). Both sets of results were validated
26 against pedestrian-movement data drawn from real settings. The resultant paths taken by
27 Dalton’sexperimentparticipantsandTurner’scognitiveagentsshowastrongpreferencefor
28 straighter rather than meandering routes (even when paths with more changes of direction
29 are of a shorter distance). Furthermore, evidence from spatial cognition⁄psychology sug-
30 gests that we form some kind of mental representation of real-world places that, rather than
31 beingaliteral‘‘mapinthehead,’’isasparseandhighlyefficientrepresentationoftheenvi-
32 ronment in which certain features such as direct paths between locations, the egocentric
33 angles at which paths cross, and visually salient features along routes and at path intersec-
34 tions(landmarks)areprominent(Golledge,1999;Siegel&White,1975).
35 This, of course, begs the question of whyshould highly linear routes be so fundamental to
36 our cognition of an environment? Can an embodied cognitive approach explain people’s
37 apparentpredilectionforlinearizedspatialrepresentations?Turner(2007)arguesthatthisphe-
38 nomenoncanonlyarisefromthecombinationofanembodiedagentanditsimmediatespatial
39 system. In addition, Dalton suggests that the experience of moving through spaces relates to
40 physical characteristics of our bodies: our left–right symmetries, front–back asymmetries, the
41 positionofoureyesandassociatedfieldofviewrelativetoourdirectionofgait(2005).
42 In this section, we proposed the composite theory that when moving through any
43 novel environment, our disposition is to immediately attempt to structure environmental
J.I.Davisetal.⁄TopicsinCognitiveScience(2012) 5
1 information to form an internal representation for further use⁄retrieval and presented our
2 findings that people favor strongly linear routes suggesting that any mental representations
3 might be similarly linearized. This has important consequences for built environment
4 design: first, for architects and urban planners designing complex environments, the knowl-
5 edge that linear routes are preferred can guide the design process and help to predict resul-
6 tant pedestrian movement rates; second, when designing physical maps, route guides, or
7 producing verbal directions, the knowledge that straighter routes are cognitively privileged
8 canserveasdesignguidelinesorheuristics.
9
10
11 4. Embodiedmusiccognition
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13 4.1. LeonvanNoordenandMarcLeman
14
15 Embodied music cognition sees music experience as based on perception and action. For
16 example, many people move when they listen to music and in many cultures there is no
17 clear distinction between music and dance. Through movement, it is assumed that people
18 give meaning to music. This is different from the traditional (disembodied) approach to
19 music cognition, which bases musical meaning on merely perception-based analysis of
20 musicalstructure.Throughmeasurementofsound,movement,humanphysiology,andcom-
21 putational modeling, music-embodied cognition is currently building up reliable knowledge
22 abouttheroleofthehumanbodyinmeaningformation.Ageneralintroductiontoembodied
23 musiccognitionisprovidedbyLeman(2007).
24 Embodied music cognition is potentially applicable to understandingthe role of music in
25 otherformsofcognition,suchasspatialcognition.Forexample,LemanandNaveda(2010)
26 introduce the concept of spatiotemporal frames of reference, as an alternative to the (tradi-
27 tional) concept of mental representation. Frames of reference provide coordination points
28 for movement in space and time, dependent on biomechanics of the human body. This pro-
29 vides for a new type of gesture analysis, based on topology of movements under spatiotem-
30 poralconstraints(Godøy&Leman,2009;Naveda&Leman,2010).
31 Furthermore, embodied music cognition is potentially applicable to better understanding
32 theroleofmusicinsocialinteractions.Forexample,DeBruyn,Moelants,Coussement,and
33 Leman (2009) and De Smet, Leman, Lesaffre, and De Bruyn (2010) show that children
34 move more in synchrony with music when they dance as a group. Of particular importance
35 is the role of a resonant perception–action coupling around 2 Hz. van Noorden and
36 Moelants(1999)haveshownthatsubjectiverhythmitizationcanbeexplainedbythisresonance.
37 Styns, van Noorden, Moelants, and Leman (2007) have shown that changes in walking
38 behaviorhappencloseto2 Hz.And,children3-and4-yearsoldcansynchronizeonlyinthe
39 neighborhood of 2 Hz. By contrast, from 5 years on, they can synchronize gradually in a
40 wider range of tempi. It is as if older children learn to put brakes on the resonator. This
41 enables them to synchronize in a range from a bit faster to more extensively slower tempi
42 (e.g., Drake, Jones, & Baruch, 2000). In addition, it may be that rocking babies at 2 Hz is
43 themosteffectivefrequencyforputtingthemtosleep(TerVrugt&Pederson,1973).
6 J.I.Davisetal.⁄TopicsinCognitiveScience(2012)
1 Embodied music cognition has a strong connection with technology development, which
2 has extended its role within spatial and social cognition, and beyond. Mediation technology
3 can give the human body, and the human mind, an extension in the digital musical domain.
4 An example is DJogger (Moens, van Noorden, & Leman, 2010), which provides music at
5 exactly the tempo of your walking or running. Another example is the ‘‘Sync-in-team’’
6 game(Leman,Demey,Lesaffre,vanNoorden,&Moelants,2009),whichappliessynchroni-
7 zation and entrainment in a social music interaction game. The embodied music cognition
8 approach starts getting a tremendous impact in the field of interactive multimedia (Correia
9 DaSilvaDinizetal.,2010;Deweppe,Lesaffre,&Leman,2009),wherenatural(embodied) 3
10 mappings between human gestures and control parameters of the system (Maes, Leman,
11 Lesaffre, Demey, & Moelants, 2010) are essential for the experience of presence and flow
12 (Nijs,Coussement,Mu¨ller,Lesaffre,&Leman,2010).
13 In contrast with traditional music cognition, embodied music cognition might change
14 how music is understood. Rather than focusing on perception, the embodied approach
15 focuses on the tight coupling between perception and action in meaning formation. It con-
16 siders how the biomechanics of the human body contributes to cognition, and provides a
17 new way of addressing emotions, through movement. This approach also allows the devel-
18 opment of models of social cognition, which link with recent neuroscience work (Leman,
19 2007),usingconceptsofmovementandemotionsynchronicityorentrainment.
20
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22
Acknowledgment
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24
ThisworkwaspartiallysupportedbyNationalScienceFoundationgrantBCS–1002595
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(toJ.I.D.).
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