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Dams and Development Transnational Struggles for Water and Power SANJEEV KHAGRAM CORNELL UNIVERSITY PRESS ITHACA AND LONDON Copyright © 2004 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 2004 by Cornell University Press Cornell Paperbacks, 2004 Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Khagram, Sanjeev. Dams and development : transnational struggles for water and power I Sanjeev Khagram. p.cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN o-8014-4228-1 (cloth: alk. paper)-ISBN o-8014-8907-5 (pbk.: alk. paper) 1. Human ecology-India-Narmada River Region. 2. Environmental degradation-India Narmada River Region. 3· Dams-India-Narmada River Valley. 4· Water resources devel opment-Environmental aspects-India-Narmada River Valley. 5. Dams-Environmental aspects. 6. Dams-Economic aspects. 7· Dams-Social aspects. 8. Human ecology Cross-cultural studies. I. Title. GF662.N37l<46 2004 333.91' 00954-dc22 2004007162 Cornell University Press strives to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the fullest extent possible in the publishing of its books. Such materials include vegetable-based, low-VOC inks and acid-free papers that are recycled, totally chlorine-free, or partly composed of nonwood fibers. For further information, visit our website at www.cornellpress.cornell.edu. Cloth printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Paperback printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 To my son, Ram, and all the children of the world. Never lose faith that you can achieve the seemingly impossible. ••• •• CONTENTS Figures and Tables ix Acknowledgments xi CHAPTER ONE Transnational Struggles for Water and Power CHAPTER TWO Dams, Democracy, and Development in India 33 CHAPTER THREE India's Narmada Projects: Historical Genesis and the Transnational Reform Campaign 65 CHAPTER FOUR The Transnational Campaign to Save India's Narmada River 101 CHAPTER FIVE Dams, Democracy, and Development in Comparative Perspective 139 CHAPTER SIX Dams, Democracy, and Development in Transnational Perspective 177 Notes 217 Index 261 Vll ••• •• FIGURES 1.1. Cumulative Number of Big Dams Constructed Worldwide 6 1.2. Average Number of Big Dams Completed Worldwide 9 1.3. The Growth of Transnational Nongovernmental Advocacy Organizations 13 1.4. Impact of Domestic Democracy and Social Mobilization 21 1.5. Comparative Country Case Selection 29 5.1. Country Case Selection: Democracy and Mobilization 140 5.2. Impact of Domestic Democracy and Social Mobilization 141 6.1. Estimated World Bank Funding for Big Dam Projects 199 TABLES 1.1. The Growth of Transnational Nongovernmental Advocacy Organizations 12 2.1. Big Dams in India 37 3.1. Decisions of the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal 81 ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This book was touched by people spread across five continents and is the cul mination of a journey that has taken nearly a century. In many ways, work for this study began when my ancestors emigrated from Gujarat to East Africa in the early 1900s. My own quest for knowledge was in spired by one of these family members, my grandfather Damji-bhai Khagram, whose passion for learning was reflected by his ability to speak six languages, in eluding Sanskrit. This book is a small attempt to honor him, may his soul rest in peace, and our family name. My family's expulsion from Uganda in 1972 and subsequent relocation to the United States was a critical juncture in this journey. This book is a testament to more than thirty long years of struggle by my parents Ramesh and Urmila. They sacrificed so that my sister and I could have an "education that would contribute to the world." This book is one symbol of their success. To my older sister, Shilpa, I offer my deep gratitude. She was always the first to take a path that had never been walked by any of us before. Her courage to lead the way made each step much easier for me than it would otherwise have been. To Regina Segura-Khagram I offer my love and respect. More than any other person, you shared the roller coaster of this book with me. It certainly could never have been written without your patience and perseverance. A book such as this could also not be written without the unwavering sup port of countless mentors, teachers, colleagues, and friends. I am deeply grate ful to Terry Karl, )hilippe Schmitter, Larry Diamond, John Meyer, Akhil Gupta, Lynn Eden, David Holloway, Stephen Krasner, Kathryn Sikkink, Martha Finne- xi more, Jim Riker, Len Ortolano, Pan Yotopolous, Sonia Alvarez, Allison Brysk, Suzanne Shanahan, Chuck Call, Tracy Fitzimmons, Marvin Peguese, Federico Besserer, Alnoor Ebrahim, David Valdez, Isaac Solotaroff, Jendayi Frazer, Roya Razaghian, Flavia Braga, Carlos Vainer, S. Parasuraman, Taeku Lee, Archon Fung, Afreen Alam, Adanna Scott, Sarah Alvord, Peggy Levitt, Shawn Bohen, Mark Moore, Frances Kunreutler, Srilatha Batliawala, David Brown, several anonymous reviewers and so many others for their invaluable time, advice, and encouragement. Research and writing for the book could not have been possi ble without the generous support of the MacArthur Foundation, Stanford Cen ter for International Security and Cooperation, American Institute of Indian Studies, Institute of World Politics, Hauser Center for Non-Profit Organiza tions, Carr Center for Human Rights Policy, Harvard Center for International Development, Kennedy School of Government, David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies, and the Center for International Affairs. In this book, I have attempted to offer a glimpse into the tremendous energy, imaginativeness, and courage of the millions who struggle to make our world more democratic, socially just, culturally nurturing, and environmentally sus tainable. To all those in India, Brazil, South Africa, Indonesia, China, the United States, and more than thirty countries across the world who have offered me their insights, experiences and wisdom, I hope that this book at least minimally reflects what you have shared with me. For all the errors that may remain, I not only ask for your understanding but take full responsibility. I pray also that this study provides a vision of how the seemingly impossible can become reality, a lesson about transformation I have learned from all of you and will never forget. SANJEEV KHAGRAM Harvard University February 2004 xii Acknowledgments