Cyber Conflict

338 Pages·2012·5.663 MB·English

by  Daniel Ventre (ed.)

Cyber Conflict
Cyber Conflict
Competing National Perspectives
Edited by
Daniel Ventre
Firstpublished2012inGreatBritainandtheUnitedStatesbyISTELtdandJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.
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Conflictsincyberspace/editedbyDanielVentre.
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Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-1-84821-350-0
1. Cyberterrorism--Prevention.2. Cyberspace--Securitymeasures.3. Computernetworks--Security
measures.4. Informationwarfare.5. Nationalsecurity. I.Ventre,Daniel.
HV6773.15.C97C662012
363.325'6004678--dc23
2012008022
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Table of Contents
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Chapter1.Canada’sCyberSecurityPolicy:aTortuousPath
TowardaCyberSecurityStrategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
HugoLOISEAUandLinaLEMAY
1.1.Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.CanadainNorthAmerica:sovereignbutsubordinate? . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.Counter-terrorismfortheimprovementofnationalsecurity. . . . . . . 13
1.4.ThelongpathtoanationalCIprotectionstrategyandnational
cybersecuritystrategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.5.TheadoptionofthecurrentstrategiesforCIprotection
andcybersecurity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.6.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.7.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.7.1.Scientificandmediaarticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.7.2.PrimaryData. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.7.3.Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Chapter2.Cuba:TowardsanActiveCyber-defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
DanielVENTRE
2.1.Cyberspace:statisticsandhistory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.1.1.ThemarginalizationofCuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.1.2.Cubancyberspaceasthetargetofattacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.2.Theoreticalandpracticalconsiderationsoninformationwarfare
andcyber-warfare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2.1.Developmentofcapabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3.Cyber-warfaretheoriesandpractices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3.1.FidelCastro’sdiscourse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
vi CyberConflict
2.3.2.Theconceptofactivecyber-defense. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.4.Regulationsandwaysaroundthem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.4.1.TheState’sinfluenceovercyberspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.4.2.Gettingaroundtherestrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.5.Capabilitiesofcontrol,surveillanceandinterception . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.6.Enemies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.8.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Chapter3.FrenchPerspectivesonCyber-conflict. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
DanielVENTRE
3.1.Cyberspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2.Assessments,viewontheworldandawakening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2.1.Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2.2.Thefeelingofinsecurity,thethreat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.2.3.PotentialvulnerabilitiesofStates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.2.4.Evolutionoftheinternationalenvironment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.3.Reaction,positionofFranceandchoice:theories,political
strategiesandmilitarydoctrines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.3.1.Information:apowerfulweaponforthosecontrollingit. . . . . . . 100
3.3.2.Mediainformation:beneficialifcontrolled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.3.3.Economicinformationaspower,ifcontrolled. . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.3.4.Informationwarfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.3.5.Informationwarfareorinformationcontrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.3.6.TheANSSI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.3.7.Cyber-securityandcyber-defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.3.8.Army:Informationoperations,NEB(numérisationde
l’espacedebataille/digitizationofbattlespace),info-development . . . . 108
3.3.9.Cyber-warandothermodalitiesofthecyber-conflict . . . . . . . . 120
3.4.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.5.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Chapter4.DigitalSparta:InformationOperations
andCyber-warfareinGreece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
JosephFITSANAKIS
4.1.Geopoliticalsignificance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.2.Strategicconcernsandinternalbalancing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.3.Formativeexperiencesininformationoperations:
theErgenekonconspiracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.4.Formativeexperiencesininformationoperations:
intensifyingcyber-attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
TableofContents vii
4.5.Formativeexperiencesininformationoperations:
theÖcalanaffair. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.6.Formativeexperiencesininformationoperations:
theGreekwiretappingcaseof2004–2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.7.Emergingcivilianinformationoperationsstrategies. . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.8.Emergingmilitaryinformationoperationsstrategies . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.9.TheEuropeanUniondimensioninGreekinformationoperations. . . . 155
4.10.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.11.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Chapter5.MovingTowardanItalianCyberDefense
andSecurityStrategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
StefaniaDUCCI
5.1.Informationwarfareandcyberwarfare:whatarethey?. . . . . . . . . . 165
5.2.UnderstandingthecurrentItaliangeopoliticalcontext . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.3.TheItalianlegalandorganizationalframework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.4.Theneedforanationalcyber-defenseand-securitystrategy . . . . . . 177
5.5.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.6.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Chapter6.CyberspaceinJapan’sNewDefenseStrategy . . . . . . . . . . . 193
DanielVENTRE
6.1.Japan’sdefensepolicy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.2.CyberspaceinJapan’sdefensestrategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.2.1.Thecontext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.2.2.Cyberspaceinsecurityanddefensepolicies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.3.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.4.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Chapter7.Singapore’sEncounterwithInformationWarfare:
FilteringElectronicGlobalizationandMilitaryEnhancements . . . . . . . 223
AlanCHONG
7.1.Singapore:electronicglobalizationanditspitfalls. . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.2.Cyberdefenceintheprivatesectorandsocietyatlarge. . . . . . . . . . 228
7.3.TheSingaporeArmedForcesandtheembrace
ofthird-generationwarfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
7.3.1.Forcemultiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.3.2.Continuallyrevitalizingexistingconventionalarms
capabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.3.3.Generatingasymmetricaladvantagesinoperational
transparency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
viii CyberConflict
7.4.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
7.5.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Chapter8.ASlovenianPerspectiveonCyberWarfare . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
GorazdPRAPROTNIK,IztokPODBREGAR,IgorBERNIKandBojanTIČAR
8.1.Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.2.Preparationsfordigitalwarfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
8.3.Specificsoftechnologically-advancedsmallcountries . . . . . . . . . . 256
8.4.Geostrategic,geopoliticsandtheeconomicposition
oftheRepublicofSlovenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
8.5.InformationandcommunicationdevelopmentinSlovenia. . . . . . . . 259
8.6.Cyber-threatsinSlovenia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.7.Sloveniainthefieldofinformationandcommunication
securitypolicy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
8.8.Slovenia’sinformationandcommunicationsecurity
policystrategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8.8.1.TheEUinformationandcommunicationsecuritypolicy . . . . . . 266
8.8.2.NATO’sinformationandcommunicationssecuritypolicy . . . . . 267
8.8.3.Slovenia’sinformationandcommunicationsecuritypolicy. . . . . 268
8.8.4.Analysisofkeystrategicdocumentsregulatingthefield
ofinformationandcommunicationsecuritypolicy
intheRepublicofSlovenia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
8.8.5.Nationalbodiesthatgovernthefieldofinformation
andcommunicationsecuritypolicyintheRepublicofSlovenia. . . . . . 270
8.8.6.Directorateforinformationsociety(MinistryofHigher
Education,ScienceandTechnology) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
8.8.7.SlovenianComputerEmergencyResponseTeam. . . . . . . . . . . 271
8.8.8.Directorateofe-GovernmentandAdministrativeProcesses
(MinistryofPublicAdministration). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
8.8.9.OfficeoftheGovernmentoftheRepublicofSlovenia
fortheProtectionofClassifiedInformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
8.8.10.SlovenianIntelligenceandSecurityAgency . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
8.8.11.NationalCenterforCrisisManagement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
8.9.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
8.10.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Chapter9.ASouthAfricanPerspectiveonInformationWarfare
andCyberWarfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
BrettVANNIEKERKandManojMAHARAJ
9.1.TheSouthAfricanstructureofinformationwarfare. . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9.2.ASouthAfricanperspectiveoncyber-warfare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
9.3.TheSouthernAfricancyber-environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
TableofContents ix
9.4.Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9.5.Cyber-securityandinformationwarfareorganizations
inSouthAfrica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.6.Estimatedcyber-warfarecapabilityinAfrica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
9.7.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
9.8.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Chapter10.Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
DanielVENTRE
10.1.Cyberspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
10.2.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
ListofAuthors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Introduction
The year 2007 was marked by the cyber-attacks against Estonia, and the well-
publicizedwavesofcyber-attacksagainstvariousStateinstitutionsacrosstheworld,
often attributed to China and Russia. Following this, 2010 was marked by the
Stuxnet worm attack on industrial infrastructures. Since then, a number of nations,
led by the United States (US), have entered a new era in terms of theirpolicies and
strategies for security and national defense, integrating the cybernetic dimension.
This can be seen in the publication of White Papers, national cyber-security
strategies, military doctrines,thereorganization of playersin cyber-security and the
creation of cyber-defense units, both civilian and military (national cyber-security
agencies,cyber-commands,etc.).
Fornearlytwodecadespriortothisturningpoint,theoriesandconcepts,mainly
Americaninorigin,fueleddebatesabouttheinformatizationofarmies,revolutionin
military affairs and the new techno-centric way of waging war. The first Gulf War
was presented as the first war in this era of digital information. Since then, the
thoughts and strategies developed by the US Department of Defense have been
observed, analyzed, copied and adapted by various nations. Russia and above all
Chinahavemadetheirpresencefeltasnewmajoractorsincyber-conflict.
Following years of musings, costly programs and successive plans to improve
cyber-security, the US came to a bitter realization: the security policies pursued up
to that point had failed, not yielding the results expected (cyber-attacks were never
ceasingtoincreaseinnumberandwereupsettingthestablefunctioningoftheglobal
economy). They no longer seemed capable of avoiding the worst, which is yet to
come,intheformofattacksagainstvital,criticalinfrastructuresthatareessentialto
thenation.
Today, all States connected to cyberspace are concerned by the same questions,
stakes, problems, challenges and difficulties.However, not all of them can pursue
xii CyberConflict
the same ambitions as the US or China – to develop both defensive and offensive
capabilities,withequivalentmeans.
Yetwhencyberspaceissharedbyallandinternationalcooperationappearstobe
oneoftheoptionsfordealingwithcommonstakesintermsofsecurityanddefense,
aplacemustbeofferedtothediversityofanalyses.
In the West, most of the publications that dominate the field of cyber-security,
cyber-defense, cyber-warfare or information warfare, are written in English – and
they are mainly American in origin. We need only look at online library databases
forproofofthis.
Production is not monopolized by the US – merely dominated by it – and little
room is left for international works that could offer other perspectives on these
questions, which are increasingly a part of issues of security and defense the world
over.
Thestructureofthisbook
The nine chapters of this book offer an analysis of the strategies and policies
developed in Canada, Cuba, France, Greece, Italy, Japan, Singapore, Slovenia and
South Africa (the chapters are presented in alphabetical order) in terms of cyber-
security and cyber-defense. They offer a key to the way in which these States
interpret the concepts of cyber-warfare, information warfare, cyber-conflict, cyber-
attacks and cyber-threats. The chapters are drawn from multiple questions that
integrateintothefieldofstudiesininternationalrelations:
–Moststatesunderlinetheirdependenceintermsofcyberspace(thedependence
of society built on technology; dependence on the rest of the world by way of that
space; mutual interdependence of their systems). How do States deal with the
negativeeffectsofthatdependence,orgetaroundit?
– What level of autonomy do States have in their strategic choices? To what
degreearepoliciesinfluenced,oriented,guidedanddeterminedbytheinternational,
geopolitical and economic environment, international alliances and the technical
constraintspeculiartocyberspace?
– How efficient are cyber-security and cyber-defense policies? How can that
efficiencybedefined,measured,evaluated?
– Do these strategies succeed in dealing with all of the issues? Are strategies
needed that break away from the traditional approach to problems of security and
defense,orshouldtheytreatcyberspacelikeotherconventionaldimensions?