Table Of Content

Tad. 6/20] a ny ayso n Saf hel 4a - a 4 iy Paya P ; i ihe c ai ka 4 " t } peda erie ee or and the Private VOLUME 20 NO. 2 1997 ENT OF THE INTERIOR Service es af PUBLISHED BY THE CRM CELEBRATING 20 YEARS OF PUBLICATION NATIONAL PARK SERVICE Contents VOLUME 20 NO. 2 1997 To promote an naintain high standards ISSN 1068-4999 for preserving and managing cultural resources African-American History An electronic version of this issue of CRM can be accessed through the CRM homepage at and Culture <hetp://www.cr.nps.gov/crm> DIRECTOR Roger G. Kennedy ee Lifesavers’ Courage and Duty Went ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR Dwight T. Pitcaithle Hand-in-Hand.............. 33 Katherine H. Stevenson African-American History and Culture— Chris Eckard EDITOR A Remembering............5. 4 Magnificent Achievements— Ronald M. Greenberg Frank Faragasso The M Street High School ..... 34 Doug Stover Antoinette J. Lee PRODUCTION MANAGER African-American Deputy Marshals The African-American Karlota M. Koester in ArkansaS ...... 6666. e ecu us 6 Discovery Trail ..........05. 36 GUEST EDITORS Juliet L. Galonska Hayden M. Wetzel Frank Faragasso Seminole Black Culture From Segregation to Preservation— on the Texas Frontier ......... 8 Monroe Elementary School ... .37 Doug Stover Shirley Boteler-Mock Rachel Franklin Weekly ISSUE CONSULTANT Mike Davis Civil Rights in Orangeburg County, Harry A. Butowsky Interpreting Slavery South Carolina ............. 41 at Hampton NHS ........... 10 Steven A. Davis Jenny Masur Forging Partnerships, Kent Lancaster Creating Contexts ........... 44 Slavery at White Haven.......... 13 Stephanie L. Batiste-Bentham, Pamela K. a Michele Gates Moresi, Underground Railroad Parks— Teresa Anne Murphy, and Historical Archieact, NPS A Shared History............ 15 Marguerite Carnell Rodney Hilary Russell African-American History A Private Museum Confronts at Independence NHP ........ 45 the Underground Railroad ..... 22 Joanne Blacoe, Jane Williamson Anna Coxe Toogood, and The John Brown Fort— Sharon Brown African-Americans’ Civil War Another Kind of Glory ........... 46 Monument ................ 23 Martin Blatt Paul A. Shackel African-American History The Niagara Movement—Lessons at Colonial Williamsburg ...... 47 Reviewed .............004. 26 Christopher D. Geist Marsha Starkey Museum Programs at Jefferson A Civil War Cemetery and African- National Expansion Memorial . .50 American Heritage........... 27 Bob Moore Steven D. Smith Peanut Man or Educator—The Legacy African-American History of Booker T. Washington at War of 1812 Sites ........ 29 Qefiri Colbert Gerard T. Altoff Charles Pinckney The African-American Sailors’ Project— National Historic Site ........ 54 The Hidden History Michael A. Allen of the Civil War ............. 31 Fox Lake—A Resort Like Joseph P. Reidy Many Others ............... 55 African-American History in the Claudia Polley Civil War Soldiers and Sailors The National Archives for Black Partnership ................ 32 Women's History ........... 56 John Peterson Susan McElrath. Conyp usn-—tegpase Gatto Gestth» choub arew itht ee pM aye ndG eer Pa,1 996.e e ee advisors and consultants, or the National Park Service. Send articles, news items, and correspondence to the Editor, CRM (2250), U.S. Deparotf mthee Inntetrio r, National Park Service, Cultural ResourcPeO.s ,Bo x 37127, Washington, DC 20013-7127; (202-343-3395F,a x 202-343-5260, Internet: [email protected]). 2 CRM No 2—1997 Foreword istoric places serve many func- Western History, titled “From Esteban to tions in our societTyh.e y Rodney King: Five Centuries of African- anchousr i n time and space, American History in the West,” demonstrates, they provide a focal point for celebration and yet again, that the story of black Americans is remembrance and contemplation, and they inextricably a part of the distinctive mosaic of act as sprintgo ubndeorstaandrindg msea n- American history. The articles in this CRM ingful truths about our social and cultural issue further illustrate the richness and depth development. The National Park Service's and complexity of that history as they con- education program examines those truths tribute to our understanding of the Texas through the use of compelling stories that frontier, War of 1812, John Brown, maritime connect place and meaning. These com- history, and American independence, to name | pelling stories expand our understanding of onla fyew . both place and meaning and explore the Our understoaf tnhed paistn igs n ot “universal questions, moral dilemmas, monolithic, rigid and static, but dynamic and beliefs, drama, and conditions that make up fluidW.e search for truths, knowing that ulti- the human condition.” mate truth will always elude us. Historians In March 1990, the NationPaalr k also understand now that our understanding Service published an issue of CRM with the of history comes not just from the written theme, “Connections: African-American record, but from various tangible and intangi- Histaondr CRyM, ” (Vol. 19, No. 2). This ble remnants from our past. Wallace Stegner issue of only 48 pages met with such demand captured this understawhnend hie nwrgote , that the Park Service ordered a reprinting that “The past becomes a thing made palpable in resulted in the distriobf 1u1,t00i0 oconpie s the monubumildeingsn, hitstorsical, sit es, to teachers, parks, federal agencies, state and museums, attics, old trunks, relics of a hun- local goveranndm thee punblitc. sIt s,tim u- dred kinds; and in the legends of grandfatt.ers || lated disciun csonfsereinceso annd scla ss- and great-grandafnda itn hthee rinsci;se d rooms. In response to one of the largest marble and granite and weathered wood of to a CRM issue to date, we have gravande iny thea murrmuridng sof g;host s.” || prepared a second CRM offering that strives (Wolf Willow, 196As w2e c.onti)nue to to connect African-Amhisetorryi wcitah nth e explore this provopcuzazlet wie cvalel t he specific places in this country where that his- past, the stories collected here will illuminate tory can be visited and studied. and expand our understaonfd Stiegnnegr’ s That history is rich and wide and deep. monurelimcs, geravenyardts, asnd g,host s of While the public perception of black history African-American history. generally focuses on the South and the North —DwiT.g Pithcaitthl ey and primarily east of the MississipRipveir , Chief Historian scholars like Quintard Taylor remind us that NatiPoarnk Saerlvic e the history of the African-Amerpeiocplae ni s truly a national story. His article, in the win- ter (1996) issue of Montana: The Magazine of In Memory of David Guynes 1945-1997 David was Site Manager, Museum and Archeological Research and Support (MARS) Facility, NPS. CRM N2 2—1997 Frank Faragasso and Doug Stover African-American History and Culture A Remembering he study of African-American his- Charleston, South Carolina. Even traditional sub- tory has changed significantly in jects, such as slavery, reveal exciting new avenues recent years. Previously, African- for exploration. There is also a blend of theory and American history focused on a lim- practice, factual information, and practical sugges- ited number of central themes, such as slavery, tions for interpretation. Several of our articles defy the Underground Railroad, and the Civil Rights categorization. Park rangers, interpreters, histori- movement—studies of discrete time periods and ans, archeologists, and others may find sugges- events. While these studies contributed important tions for either (1) development of new programs knowledge to our understanding of this history, or (2) enrichment of existing interpretive pro- what was often missing was a clear understand- grams. ing of historical change and continuity within the Our lead article, by Juliet Galonska, larger context of American history. Recent schol- describes the lives of African-American deputy arship reveals a more comprehensive and com- U.S. marshals who exercised significant police plex history that is moving to a more central authority in a predominantly white world. They place in our society. African-American history has required courage and ingenuity in the performance entered our consciousness. of their duties. An equally fascinating and reveal- This issue of CRM expands the investigation ing part of the history of the Old West is Shirley of African-American contributions to American civ- Boteler-Mock’s and Mike Davis's article which pro- ilization. There is a keen interest in topics previ- vides a rare glimpse of Seminole black culture ously unexplored, even by people familiar with the searching for a place to call home and a sense of field of American history and culture. Our request identity amidst a society that accepted neither free for articles resulted in a large number of responses blacks nor Native Americars. from NPS employees, academics, and independent More traditional in subject matter, but open- scholars. Selecting articles for publication from so ing new avenues of research, is Jenny Masur's and many sources was difficult. Many good articles Kent Lancaster's research into the family archives could not be included because of space. at Hampton National Historic Site in Towson, Frederick Douglass In the following pages, the reader will be Maryland. Park Service professionals, in coopera- in his library, c. taken to unexpected places and times, such as tion with university scholars, are providing valu- 1890-1895. Photo western frontier towns, Mexican haciendas, able insight into the reality of slave life. Another courtesy Frederick Canadian historic places, Independence Hall in NPS employee, Pam Sanfilippo, tells of efforts to Douglass National Historic Site, NPS. Philadelphia, and a sandbank off the coast of uncover the history of slavery in her lively article about the White Haven plantation (Ulysses S. Grant NHS). On the familiar subject of the Underground Railroad, we are treated to a masterful analysis from the Canadian perspective by Hilary Russell. She informs the reader regarding both the similari- ties and the differences between the African- American Canadian experience and that of the United States. Following the theme of the Underground Railroad, Jane Williamson presents astute comments on the treatment of fugitive slaves in Vermont. The discipline of archeology provides two compelling stories: Paul Shackel’s investigation of the John Brown Fort from Harpers Ferry to other locations and back to Harpers Ferry; and while doing archeology pertaining to the Civil War period, Steven D. Smith’s investigation of a forgot- CRM Ne 2—1997 ten black soldiers’ cemetery. His research is a a clear picture of recent efforts at Colonial vivid reminder of how quickly places and events Williamsburg to interpret African-American partic- are erased from memory. ipation in the colonial community. Bob Moore Two excellent articles focus on African- offers his thoughts on the weaving of new themes American participation in warfare. Gerald T. Altoff, into existing exhibits at Jefferson National with extensive experience, gives us the black sol- Expansion Memorial in St. Louis. Finally, we have dier in the War of 1812. Professor P. Reidy, a an example of reinterpretation at a site. Ranger prominent historian from Howard University, pre- Qefiri Colbert presents the history of interpretation sents his thoughts on the participation of black at Booker T. Washington National Monument in sailors in the Civil War. Virginia. Readers will find both theoretical and From military conflict we move to education, practical suggestions for site interpretation. the segregated school system, and the need to cap- Eighteen feature articles and numerous ture that history. Antoinette Lee’s article on the M shorter pieces constitute an impressive attempt to Street School in Washington, DC, and Rachel F. deepen our understanding of the African- Weekly's article on the Monroe Elementary School American/Canadian past. Much of that past is lost in Topeka, Kansas, discuss efforts to preserve a and much remains to be revealed. We are pleased history of segregated education. Many of these to make a contribution toward remembering. schools were superior institutions of learning. We wish to thank the managers of CRM for Steven Davis provides an important and little- the opportunity to put together this thematic issue remembered part of the Civil Rights struggle with concerning African-American history and culture. his illuminating article. He tells us why these sites The management of National Capital Parks are important and presents a system for evaluating East has been supportive and permitted us the sites for preservation. time to do this work. This issue has included six articles that are distinguished by their emphasis on site interpreta- Frank Faragasso, Ph.D., is the historian for tion. Individually, or as a group, they provide a Nationa] Capital Parks East, which includes African- valuable resource for anyone developing a new American sites such as the Frederick Douglass NHS interpretation or rethinking an existing one. From and the Mary McLeod Bethune Council House NHS. George Washington University, thoughtful efforts He writes and speaks frequently on the life and time of four young scholars—Stephanie L. Batiste- of Frederick Douglass. Benthan, Michele Gates Moresi, Teresa Anne Murphy, and Marguerite Carnell Rodney—provide Doug Stover is the curator for National Capital interpretative tools for historic sites. Joanne Parks East. He is responsible for over a million Blacoe, Anna Coxe Toogood, and Sharon A. Brown museum objects of which the Frederick Douglass col- offer a frank insight into the efforts to interpret lection constitutes the largest and most varied por- African-American history at Independence tion. He also oversees the National Archives for National Historic Site. Christopher Geist gives us Black Women’s History. CRM N° 2—1997 Juliet L. Galonska African-American Deputy Marshals ) in Arkansas n the Visitor Center of Fort Smith his 21 years at Fort Smith, Parker would restore National Historic Site stands an the court to respectability. He gave much of the exhibit honoring “The Men Who Rode credit for his success to his deputies, once com- for Parker,” a reference to the hun- menting that “without these officers, what is the dreds of deputy U.S. marshals, posse and other use of this court?”! officers charged with enforcing law and order While the majority of deputies were white, over the Indian Territory during the tenure of the law enforcement force working in Indian Judge Isaac C. Parker. Prominent in the middle of Territory was probably the most integrated on the the display is Bass Reeves, an African-American frontier at that time, having its share of both deputy who served the U. S. Court for the Indian and African-American members. The use of Western District of Arkansas for over 20 years. these officers was an efficient and effective way of He is one of several challenging the traditional carrying out the work of the federal court because image of the lawman on the frontier. of the multicultural population in the jurisdiction. Until 1896, the jurisdiction of the Western As one historian has noted, “A deputy's authority District of Arkansas encompassed all or parts of to a great extent depended on his being accepted Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma). This and respected by the Indians.”? African-American vast area was home to the Cherokees, Chickasaws, deputies held a decided advantage here because of Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles, removed from the Five Tribes history of slaveholding. Unlike their homelands in the Southeast by the U.S. gov- white deputies, many African-American officers ernment during the 1830s. Treaties in 1866 had lived with the Indians, understood local cus- reduced the territory of those nations as a result of toms and possessed knowledge of tribal languages. alliances of at least some portions of each tribe Some were freedmen, like Grant Johnson, the son with the Confederacy. This resulted in the reloca- of a Chickasaw Freedman and a Creek tion of additional Indian tribes in the territory, as Freedwoman. Deputy Bass Reeves, an ex-slave, well as increasing pressure from whites to open left his owner in Texas sometime prior to or during the lands to settlement. The treaties also granted the Civil War and found refuge in the Indian the railroads access, creating a transportation link Territory where he learned several Indian dialects. that enhanced the possibility of huge profits in Although not all black deputies were former cattle, lumbering, and mineral mining. With these slaves—Zeke Miller had been a mine inspector in opportunities for wealth, the overlapping jurisdic- Ohio—a high percentage of them had some previ- tions of the U.S. government and independent ous dealings with the tribes and often seemed Indian nations, and the vast acreage and distances trustworthy as a result. that made avoiding justice easy, the Indian How these men were chosen remains some- Territory became a chaotic refuge for the lawless. what of a mystery. Some may have been sought Responsibility for policing this area fell to out by the court, which was in need of brave men the federal court in Fort Smith, Arkansas. The who knew the territory. Bass Reeves, possibly the Western District of Arkansas, created in 1851, first black American west of the Mississippi to derived its uniqueness from the responsibility to become a deputy U.S. marshal, was approached handle cases between Indians and those who were by Judge Parker himself and convinced to serve as not tribal members. The court, unlike most of its a lawman. federal counterparts, handled an extraordinary By all means, it was a dangerous profession. criminal caseload, with most of this activity erupt- Gunfights and ambushes erupted as suspects ing after the Civil War. Until 1875, when Judge fought arrest or prisoners attempted escape. Bass Parker arrived from Missouri, the court’s reputa- Reeves killed 14 men in his career, but proved self tion for justice was poor. Parker's predecessor had defense in each case. Deputy John Garrett, resigned under the threat of impeachment; the another African American, became one of the first past five U.S. Marshals had all left under similar victims of the infamous Rufus Buck Gang as they clouds of scandal; and the deputies had a history carried out their spree of robberies, murders, and of using perjury and bribery for their own ends. In rapes in the summer of 1895. Frequently working 6 CRM No 2—1997 with celebrated lawman Heck Thomas, Deputy ues to do research on these individuals and their Rufus Cannon, the descendent of an ex-slave and contributions to law enforcement history. Dr. a Cherokee mixed-bivod, assisted in arresting Nudie Williams of the University of Arkansas once some of the most notorious outlaws of the period, wrote about Bass Reeves that “the mark of this including Bill Doolin, William Christian, and Bill man was not that he died with his boots on, but Carr.4 what he did with them while he wore them.”® The Making those arrests often took ingenious same may be said about those other deputies who methods. On one occasion, Bass Reeves, disguised proved so instrumental in preserving law and himself as a tramp and walked 28 miles to the order in Indian Territory. home of two outlaws. Although they were j\ot home at the time, Reeves convinced their mother Notes that he could be trusted and she invited him to ' Quoted in Fred Harvey Harrington, Hanging Judge, spend the night. When the sons returned that (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1951: Reprinted evening, they shared a room with the deputy who by University of Oklahoma Press 1966) p. 66. proceeded to handcuff them while they slept. After 2 Paul L. Brady, A Certain Blindness: A Black Family's breakfast the next morning, he marched them back Quest for the Promise of America (Atlanta: ALP to his camp and transported them to Fort Smith. Publishing, 1990) p. 20. Reeves was also known for his incredible memory. 3 Brady, p. 20; Fort Smith (Arkansas) Weekly Elevator. Lacking a formal education and the ability to read April 15, 1887: July 13, 1888. or write was a formidable obstacle, considering 4 Nudie E. Williams, “United States vs. Bass Reeves: that all legal writs and subpoenas required proper Black Lawman on Trial” Chronicles of Oxlahoma, service. Bass Reeves studied the paperwork until Summer 1990, p. 156; Glenn Shirley, Law West of he could associate the symbols of a written name Fort Smith: A History of Frontier Justice in the Indian with the sounds of the name as spoken. When he Territory 1834-1896, (Lincoln: University of located the suspects or witnesses, Reeves selected Nebraska Press, 1957), p. 160; Arthur T. Burton, the correct documents by matching the symbols. Black Red and Deadly:Black and Indian Gunfighters He would then have the person read the paper of the Indian Territory, 1870-1907 (Austin, Texas: aloud themselves. In his way, only if the person Eakin Press, 1991) p. 243. could not read was Reeves forced to find someone 5 Burton, pp. 176-177, 204-205. that could.> © Williams, “Bass Reves: Lawman in the Western Although African-American deputies may Ozarks,” Negro History Bulletin (Apri/May/June, have been welcomed into the Indian communities 1979) p. 39. they served nore easily than white lawmen, prejudice against them remained. Much of this derived Juliet Galonska is the park historian at Fort Smith from the placement of blacks in positions of National Historic Site. Recently she served as project authority over whites. director for two history conferences at Fort Smith Despite such prejudice and adversity, NHS. In 1994 she received Oklahoma State African-American deputy marshals performed their University’s Leroy H. Fisher Award for the best grad- duties efficiently and heroically in the Indian uate paper in history. She has a master’s degree in Territory. Fort Smith National Historic Site contin- history from Oklahoma State University. ¥- ' : ae)8e : , en¢ se ogsn iMee k; Pe Re eM eR; iegt oi OSSSe pdR ar : ’ FMier teas« 2e t [+ a See oki r% a | : a 4 iy tag fs J | %N 4 PE 4PS Lk aM e | : ‘ r; ig Sy ec ae ; ang . pe Foe ;2, : ¢ oe F HEN SRR trots wrR ey RS Pos peat miles ec a 2 , i ‘ _ sre res we, eee - . es w5 ey 9 ao‘ R +% Pieegs Denbiasa l CRM Ne 2—1997 Shirley Boteler-Mock and Mike Davis Seminole Black Culture on the Texas Frontier I'd like to see the whole story told before ! conducted by Shirley Boteler-Mock revealed sig- die...Most of us are pretty scattered out now, scattered nificant new information. Such a collaboration out or dead. has the power to make substantive contributions to a reconstruction of both the behavioral and —San Antonio Express News, |9 90 physical aspects of the Seminole black culture, Miss Charles Wilson, tribal historian enhancing greater anthropological understanding small, dusty side road outside than a single strategy would allow by itself.* Brackettville leads to a small well- Seminole Black History tended cemetery, bounded by a One of the distinctive and fascinating cul- barbed wire fence and scrub tures of Texas, the present-day Seminole blacks brush. Established on the Fort Clark reservation are descendants of runaway black slaves in 1872, its obscurity belies its importance in the (maroons) who took shelter in the early 1800s history of Texas. Here lie the 100 or more with the Seminole Indians in Florida.The Seminole black scouts and their families, and Seminole Indians in Florida practiced a modified four distinguished Medal of Honor winners. form of slavery; however, maroons essentially con- These people known for their horsemanship, trolled most aspects of their existence, living in scouting, and courage played a major role in their own villages, owning property, and having defending communities and forts on the Texas their own leaders. Some intermarriage did occur frontier. between the two neighbors. Both groups shared Seminole black culture and history is the the common goal of resisting European intrusions focus of the ongoing research described in this col- into their homeland and a desire for indepen- The Seminole laborative paper. The project was born out of a dence. During the frequent border skirmishes and blacks lived in 1993 Cultural Resource Management Project Indian Wars, the Seminole blacks enhanced their adobe jacals or (CRM) in Brackettville, Texas, at two sites— fighting skills and evasive tactics of guerrilla-like chink houses in § 41KY18 and 41KY68—located within the limits of warfare in the Florida swamp lands; skills which the village on the Seminole black village as depicted on a 1910 would lead to their eventual deployment to Fort Las Moras U.S. Army Quartermaster plane table map of the Duncan on the Texas frontier as Indian scouts. Creek outside Fort Clark military compound. Following the Indian Wars, the Seminole Fort Clark. Photo The fruits of this project were many; how- blacks were forcibly moved with their Seminole courtesy the ever, the recovery of a house foundation and arti- allies to Indian Territory in Oklahoma. After suf- Institute of Texan _ facts in the Seminole village at 41KY68 by Mike fering harsh treatment at the hands of the slave Cultures. Davis and ethnographic interviews and research owners and oppression by the Creeks, groups of Seminoles, Seminole blacks, and other runaways began desperate migrations to Mexico, where slavery was not practiced. One journey, in particular, began in 1850 and taking nearly a year, was led by the great Seminole chief, Wild Cat (Coacoochee), and John Horse (Juan Caballo), the Seminole black chief. During this trek, making camps near Waco, along the Llano River, and at Las Moras Springs (near Fort Clark and Brackettville), they were constantly chased by slave hunters. After crossing the Rio Grande at Eagle Pass, the Mexican government granted the Seminole blacks asylum and gave them supplies, provisions, and title to lands or sitios in the state of Coahuila. In return the Seminole blacks, because of their CRM Ne 2—1997 Seminole black fierce reputation, were expected to act as an effec- — Fort tive deterrent to Indian raids along the Mexican at, Teas, ¢ border. Eventually, the Seminole blacks would 1885. Photo courtesy Institute of start a small community, the hacienda of Texan Cultures. Nacimiento at the headwaters of the Rio San Juan Sabinas, northwest of Muzquiz. At this time they were also given the official designation, Mascogos, a term still used to describe the Nacimiento maroons today. Seminole black ties to Texas strengthened after the Civil War, acce'erated by the return of their Seminole Indian allies back to Indian Territory. In 1870, U.S. military officials, plagued by Indian raids on settlements and seeing value in their scouting and diplomatic skills with Indian Nacimiento, Coahuila, while others traveled to tribes, persuaded the Seminole blacks to return to Indian Territory in Oklahoma to settle among Texas. In July of that year, a small group moved to Seminole blacks who had not migrated south to Fort Duncan and two years later, another contin- Texas in 1849. Yet, a few families, often destitute gent of Seminole blacks moved to Fort Clark, and dependent for handouts, remained in becoming a unit and fighting their first military Brackettville until 1914 when the Seminole scouts engagement. The scouts and their families occu- were disbanded. Descendants, such as Miss pied land south of the fort on both sides of Las Charles Wilson, granddaughter of the illustrious Moras Creek. Seminole black chief, Sampson July, and a community spokesperson and educator, still live in Wed have baptisms right in the river, and cook food Brackettville; however, the majority have spread over the fires,...Sometimes theyd cook a whole goat in the out to other parts of Texas or the United States. ground, head and alll....If we didn’t have dolls wed take Current Research ITC, in particular, with research grants from sticks or something and our parents would carve faces on the Summerlee Foundation, and in collaboration them. Our houses had dirt floors, except the living rooms with the Texas Historic Commission, The Fort would be board floorsA.n y company got entertained in the Clark Springs Association, and the Fort Clark living room. Springs Museum, has been actively engaged in the —Miss Charles Wilson act of recording Seminole black culture and his- San Antonio Express News, 1994 tory by developing the following projects: ¢ Recordation of oral interviews with key Here they continued to speak their Creole Seminole black elders in Nacimiento and language called Gullah, a survival of their south- Texas eastern and African heritage; however, many who ¢ Production of a video documentary entitled had lived in Mexico were also fluent in Spanish. “Singing to the Ancestors: Revitalization Fort Clark became their home base through the Attempts Among the Seminole Blacks” ( with early 1880s as the scouts performed exemplary ITC Director of Media Production, Leslie duty in the Texas Indian campaigns of Bullis, Burns) Shafer, and other military leaders. Under Bullis’s ¢ Outreach activities such as classroom presen- leadership for eight years, the Seminole black tations and university lectures scouts were to embark on a period of intense bor- ¢ Integration of Seminole black history and cul- der wars, many of their future postings being at ture into the African-American area of the ITC outlying posts such as San Pedro Springs, Elm Exhibit Floor Creek, Camp Meyers Spring, Camp Del Rio, and ¢ Involvement of the Seminole blacks in preser- Painted Cave. vation efforts and public forums With the final removal of Indian tribes to ¢ Development and production of an exhibit on reservations outside Texas, the scouts fought their Seminole black culture that will travel to last battle in 1881 and their residence on Fort selected museums in Texas. Clark became problematic. The War Department These projects have cent.red on core determined that Seminole black families would be themes: removed from the fort and were entitled to no ¢ How new beliefs acquired have been layered allotments since they were black and, despite their over traditional beliefs and practices, to mixed blood, not considered Seminole. Forced accommodate a diversity of needs among the from their homes, some families returned to Seminole blacks of Texas and Mexico CRM N2 2—1997 ¢ The dynamics of gender and the representa- tion of women in Seminole black culture Note ¢ How Seminole black descendants assimilate * Subsecuent to this, the prospects of expanding this new interests and influences into their culture, research as well as a continued commitment to the while holding on to the tenuous threads of the collaboration were enhanced by the present past. authors’ new positions: Shirley Boteler-Mock at the ¢ The changes through time in the two commu- Institute of Texan Cultures (ITC) at the University nities, Nacimiento and Brackettville, and rea- of Texas at San Antonio (UTSA) and Mike Davis at sons for these changes The Office of the State Archeologist (OSA) of the Today, the Seminole blacks of Mexico, Texas Historical Commission (THC). Thus ITC, a Texas, and those remaining in Oklahoma continue multicultural institution focused on the history and their attempts to maintain ties between the various culture of Texas, and OSA/THC are presently con- groups through yearly reunions at Brackettville joined in a common mission: to continue document- during Juneteenth and Seminole Days. The ing the history and culture of the Seminole blacks Seminole scout cemetery just outside Brackettville, and assist them in revitalization efforts. containing the remains of four scout Medal of Honor winners, survives as a dramatic symbol of Dr. Shirley Boteler-Mock is a Research Associate at historic time and place and a link with the the Institute of Texan Cultures of the University of Seminole black ancestors. As Miss Charles notes: Texas at San Antonio in San Antonio, Texas. My grandfather, my mother, even a lot of Mike Davis is an archeologist with the Office of the those of us who weren't in the military, we're State Archeologist, the Texas Historic Commission in all buried here. The Julys, the Jeffersons, the Austin, Texas. others, we were all cousins (Fort Worth Star Telegram, March 1990). Jenny Masur and Kent Lancaster Interpreting Slavery at Hampton NHS ampton National Historical Site, Maryland State Archives in Annapolis, or in the Towson, Maryland, contains the Park collection. Scores of long account books, core of the Hampton estate, thousands of brief receipts for purchases, letters, which belonged to seven genera- runaway advertisements, diaries, lists of clothing tions of the Ridgely family from the 1740s-1940s. and shoes given out, and other sources are avail- The huge and beautiful mansion is known for its able to reconstruct slave life at this site for more careful reconstructions of earlier periods in the than a century before the Civil War. family history. Exciting research is now underway Two interesting examples are a list of on the work force that made gracious living at the “Christmas Gifts of the Colored Children of site possible, particularly the African Americans, Hampton” kept by a daughter of the house from who at one point numbered as many as 329 1841-54 and a letter from a Washington lawyer in under Ridgely control. 1866 to Master John Ridgely demanding the return The Ridgelys were the consummate record- of property—including “furs and muff” and “6 prs keepers. Mrs. Eliza Ridgely (1803-67), for exam- of white lace sleeves”—claimed as her property by ple, recorded her every expenditure down to five Lucy Jackson, a former slave. Of more importance, cents for a year of ribbon for her own use and though, are recently discovered documents, which $1.27 for cloth for slave clothing. A working permit identification of large numbers of slaves by socialite, the mistress of a great plantation, she age and, it is hoped, eventually by family group- was typical of the family who produced and saved ings. These documents open various avenues of an enormous number of documents detailing their understa ding of the Hampton community. history. Most of these records are now at the By his will, Governor Charles Ridgely manu- Maryland Historical Society in Baltimore, the mitted his slaves in 1829. Controlled to some 10 CRM N° 2—1997