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Critical thinking : an appeal to reason PDF

457 Pages·2011·4.52 MB·English
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critical thinking-00c.qxd 10/11/10 14:31 Page i Critical Thinking Thinking critically about the arguments and messages we see every day—in words or in pictures—gives us the power to make up our own minds. Thinking critically about the way we express ourselves—in writing or in person—gives us the power to persuade. In Critical Thinking: An Appeal to Reason, Peg Tittle empowers students with a solid grounding in the lifelong skills of considered analysis and argu- mentation—skills that should underpin every student’s education. Starting with the building blocks of a good argument rather than with the pitfalls to avoid, this comprehensive new textbook offers a full course in critical thinking. It includes chapters on the nature and structure of argument, the role of relevance, truth, and generalizations, and the subtleties of verbal and visual language. Throughout the text there are numerous sample arguments from books, journals, magazines, television, and the internet for students to analyze. With an interactive companion website and a comprehensive instructor’s manual, Critical Thinkingis the ideal textbook for a course in the fundamentals of sound reasoning. Special features include:  An emphasis on the constructive aspect of critical thinking—strengthening the arguments of others and constructing sound arguments of your own— rather than an exclusive focus on spotting faulty arguments  Acompanion website with comprehensive pedagogical features, including an instructor’s manual, extended answers, explanations, and analyses for the exercises and arguments in the book, and supplementary chapters on logic and ethics  Dozens of images for critical analysis  Annotated arguments that help students to read critically and actively  Actual questions from standardized reasoning tests like the LSAT, GMAT, MCAT, and GRE. Please visit the companion website for Critical Thinkingat: www.routledge.com/textbooks/tittle Peg Tittlehas taught critical thinking and applied ethics at both the university and high school levels. She is the author of What If...Collected Thought Experiments in Philosophy,and the editor of Should Parents be Licensed?and Ethical Issues in Business: Enquiries, Cases, and Readings. critical thinking-00c.qxd 10/11/10 14:31 Page ii critical thinking-00c.qxd 10/11/10 14:31 Page iii Critical Thinking An Appeal to Reason Peg Tittle critical thinking-00c.qxd 10/11/10 14:31 Page iv Acquring Editor: Andrew Beck Senior Development Editor: Nicole Solano Senior Editorial Assistant: Michael Andrews Marketing Manager: Emilia Ayon Senior Production Editor: Siân Findlay Line Editor: Kristen LeFevre Text Design: Karl Hunt at Keystroke Proofreader: Sarah Pearsall First published 2011 by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2011. To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. © 2011 Peg Tittle All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Tittle, Peg, 1957- Critical thinking : an appeal to reason / Peg Tittle. p. cm. 1. Critical thinking. I. Title. BC177.T536 2010 160—dc22 2010016540 ISBN 0-203-84161-1 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 13: 978–0–415–99713–3 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978–0–415–99714–0 (pbk) ISBN 13: 978–0–203–84161–7 (ebk) critical thinking-00c.qxd 10/11/10 14:31 Page v Contents Acknowledgments for Reasoning Test Questions xiv 1 Critical Thinking 1 1.1 What is critical thinking? 4 1.2 What is critical thinking not? 6 1.3 Why is critical thinking important? 8 1.4 Why do we typically notthink critically? (why do we need a coursein critical thinking?) 12 1.5 Template for critical analysis of arguments 16 Review of terms 18 Thinking critically about what you see 18 Thinking critically about what you hear 18 Thinking critically about what you read 19 Thinking critically about what you write 19 Thinking critically when you discuss 19 Reasoning test questions 19 2 The Nature of Argument 21 2.1 The nature of argument 23 2.2 Recognizing an argument 23 2.3 Identifying implied conclusions and unstated premises (assumptions) 33 2.4 Circular arguments (an error in reasoning) 43 critical thinking-00c.qxd 10/11/10 14:31 Page vi C O N T E N T S 2.5 Counterarguments 46 2.6 Identifying the issue of contention 49 2.7 The burden of proof 53 2.8 The appeal to ignorance (an error in reasoning) 55 2.9 Facts and opinions 56 2.10 Deductive and inductive argument 61 Review of terms 66 Thinking critically about what you see 67 Thinking critically about what you hear 67 Thinking critically about what you read 67 Thinking critically about what you write 72 Thinking critically when you discuss 73 Reasoning test questions 78 3 The Structure of Argument 81 3.1 The structure of argument 83 3.2 Convergent, single 83 3.3 Convergent, multiple-separate 85 3.4 Convergent, multiple-linked 88 3.5 Divergent 90 3.6 Multi-structured arguments 93 Review of terms 101 Thinking critically about what you see 101 Thinking critically about what you hear 102 Thinking critically about what you read 102 Thinking critically about what you write 107 Thinking critically when you discuss 107 Reasoning test questions 107 4 Relevance 108 4.1 Relevance 110 4.2 Errors of relevance: considering the source of the argument instead of the argument itself 113 4.2.1 Appeal to the person (ad hominem) 113 4.2.2 Genetic fallacy 120 4.3 Errors of relevance: appealing to an inappropriate standard 124 vi critical thinking-00c.qxd 10/11/10 14:31 Page vii CO N T E N T S 4.3.1 Appeal to inappropriate authority 124 4.3.2 Appeal to tradition or past practice 127 4.3.3 Appeal to custom, habit, or common practice 130 4.3.4 Appeal to moderation (or lack of) 132 4.3.5 Appeal to popularity (or lack of) 136 4.3.6 “Two wrongs” 140 4.4 Errors of relevance: going off-topic 143 4.4.1 Paper tiger (also called the straw man fallacy) 143 4.4.2 Red herring 146 4.4.3 Non sequitur 148 4.4.4 Appeal to emotion 150 Review of terms 155 Thinking critically about what you see 155 Thinking critically about what you hear 156 Thinking critically about what you read 156 Thinking critically about what you write 163 Thinking critically when you discuss 164 Reasoning test questions 165 5 Language 168 5.1 Clarity 170 5.1.1 Precise diction 170 5.1.2 Precise grammar 174 5.1.3 Repetition 177 5.1.4 Detail 179 5.1.5 Beware of manipulation 182 5.2 Neutrality 183 5.2.1 Loaded language 183 5.2.2 Visual effects 188 5.2.3 Aural effects 193 5.2.4 Other effects 195 5.3 Definition 196 5.3.1 Genus and species 197 5.3.2 Necessary and sufficient conditions 199 5.3.3 Inclusiveness and exclusiveness 200 5.3.4 Equivocation (an error in reasoning) 204 vii critical thinking-00c.qxd 10/11/10 14:31 Page viii C O N T E N T S Review of terms 208 Thinking critically about what you see 208 Thinking critically about what you hear 209 Thinking critically about what you read 209 Thinking critically about what you write 213 Thinking critically when you discuss 214 Reasoning test questions 215 6 Truth and Acceptability 216 6.1 Truth and acceptability 219 6.1.1 Truth 219 6.1.2 Acceptability 220 6.2 How do we define truth? (theories of truth) 226 6.2.1 Subjectivism 226 6.2.2 The coherence theory 227 6.2.3 The correspondence theory 228 6.2.4 Pragmatism 229 6.3 How do we discover truth? 229 6.3.1 Innate ideas and/or experience and/or reason? 229 6.3.2 Random personal experience 231 6.3.3 Methodical investigation: the scientific process 234 6.4 How do we evaluate claims of truth? 241 6.4.1 Evaluating personal testimony 242 6.4.2 Evaluating studies (surveys, experiments, numbers) 244 6.4.3 Evaluating sources 261 6.4.4 Evaluating images 265 6.5 Errors of truth 267 6.5.1 The either/or fallacy 270 6.5.2 The fallacy of composition 271 6.5.3 The fallacy of division 272 6.5.4 The gambler’s fallacy 273 Review of terms 277 Thinking critically about what you see 278 Thinking critically about what you hear 278 viii critical thinking-00c.qxd 10/11/10 14:31 Page ix CO N T E N T S Thinking critically about what you read 278 Thinking critically about what you write 282 Thinking critically when you discuss 282 Reasoning test questions 282 7 Generalization, Analogy, and General Principle 283 7.1 Sufficiency 285 7.2 Generalization 287 7.2.1 Overgeneralization (an error) 291 7.2.2 Insufficient sample (an error) 293 7.2.3 Unrepresentative sample (an error) 295 7.3 Analogy 296 7.3.1 Weak or false analogy (an error) 300 7.4 General principle 303 7.4.1 Misapplied general principle (an error) 306 Review of terms 310 Thinking critically about what you see 311 Thinking critically about what you hear 311 Thinking critically about what you read 311 Thinking critically about what you write 317 Thinking critically when you discuss 318 Reasoning test questions 319 8 Inductive Argument: Causal Reasoning 322 8.1 Causation 325 8.1.1 Correlation and causation 327 8.1.2 Cause, time, and space 328 8.1.3 Direct and indirect causes 328 8.1.4 Necessary and sufficient causes 330 8.1.5 Mill’s methods 331 8.2 Explanations 335 8.2.1 Alternative explanations 335 8.2.2 Good explanations 337 ix

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In Critical Thinking: An Appeal to Reason, Peg Tittle empowers students with a solid grounding in the lifelong skills of considered analysis and argumentation - skills that should underpin every student's education. Starting with the building blocks of a good argument rather than with the pitfalls t
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