Criminal Procedural Agreements in China and England and Wales

317 Pages·2015·16.89 MB·English

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To my parents,
Pei Chengfa and Li Jialin(cid:1)
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Table of Contents

Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................... 1
List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................. 3
List of Main Cases .................................................................................................................................. 5
List of Laws and Official Documents .................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 11
1. Development of Agreements in Criminal Procedure ............................................................... 11
2. Research Subject ......................................................................................................................... 14
3. Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 16
4. Research Methods ....................................................................................................................... 17
5. Structure of the Thesis ................................................................................................................ 19
CHAPTER II CONCEPTUALIZING CPAS: MODEL, ELEMENTS, AND NATURE ............. 21
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 21
2. The Pure Model and Its Variants .............................................................................................. 21
2.1 Basic Elements of An Agreement ......................................................................................... 22
2.2 Context in Which CPAs Take Place ..................................................................................... 22
2.3 Additional Elements by Referring to ‘Contract’ ................................................................... 23
2.4 Pure Model and Its Variants .................................................................................................. 24
3. Categorization: From the Offender’s Perspective ................................................................... 25
3.1 Plea Agreement ..................................................................................................................... 26
3.2 Assistance Agreement ........................................................................................................... 29
3.3 Restoration Agreement .......................................................................................................... 31
4. Fundamental Parties and Other Stakeholders ......................................................................... 32
4.1 Fundamental Parties: Offender and Criminal Justice Authorities ......................................... 32
4.1.1 Offenders ........................................................................................................................... 32
4.1.2 Police ................................................................................................................................. 33
4.1.3 Public Prosecutors ............................................................................................................. 33
4.1.4 Judges ................................................................................................................................ 34
4.2 Other Stakeholders ................................................................................................................ 36
4.2.1 Victims .............................................................................................................................. 36
4.2.2 The Accused Person Targeted in Assistance Agreement .................................................. 38
5. Goals for CPAs ............................................................................................................................ 38
5.1 Goal for Plea Agreement ....................................................................................................... 38
5.2 Goal for Assistance Agreement ............................................................................................. 39
5.3 Goal for Restoration Agreement ........................................................................................... 39
5.4 Common Ideology behind Goals ........................................................................................... 40
6. Nature of CPAs: Possibility, Necessity and Feasibility ............................................................ 40
6.1 Possibility: Bargaining Power of Parties ............................................................................... 41
6.1.1 State’s Bargaining Power .................................................................................................. 41
6.1.2 Offender’s Bargaining Power ............................................................................................ 43
6.2 Necessity: The Demands of Parties ....................................................................................... 44
6.2.1 Offender’s Demands ......................................................................................................... 44
6.2.2 State’s Demands ................................................................................................................ 45
6.3 Feasibility of Coordinating CPAs with Ordinary Procedures ............................................... 47
(cid:1)
6.3.1 Characteristics of CPAs in the Criminal Justice Scenario ................................................ 47
6.3.2 Feasibility of Coordination ................................................................................................ 48
7. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................. 49
CHAPTER III CRIMINAL PROCEDURAL AGREEMENTS IN CHINA ................................. 51
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 51
2. Plea Agreement ........................................................................................................................... 51
2.1 Historical Review on Plea Agreement in China: from Subsidiary to Independent ............... 53
2.2.1 Before 21st Century: In Practice but Out-of-Law ............................................................. 53
2.2.2 Beginning of the 21st Century: The Boomlet of Plea Bargaining ..................................... 54
2.2.3 After 2003: Enhanced Facilitation for Plea Agreement .................................................... 56
2.2 Current Legal Regime of Plea Agreement ............................................................................ 57
2.2.1 Categorization ................................................................................................................... 57
2.2.2 Proceedings ....................................................................................................................... 58
2.2.3 Legal Concessions ............................................................................................................. 59
2.3 Motivations for Plea Agreement ........................................................................................... 60
2.3.1 Enhancing Efficiency ........................................................................................................ 60
2.3.2 Indication of Improving Respect for Individual Rights .................................................... 62
2.3.3 Uphold the Principle of Legality ....................................................................................... 63
2.4 Potential Risks ....................................................................................................................... 64
2.4.1 Tension with Seeking Truth .............................................................................................. 64
2.4.2 Tension with Inquisitorial Tradition ................................................................................. 65
2.4.3 Tension with Supporting Mechanisms .............................................................................. 66
2.5 Chinese Version of Plea Agreement: Nature and Future ...................................................... 68
2.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 70
3. Assistance Agreement ................................................................................................................. 70
3.1 Historical Review on Assistance Agreement: From Subsidiarity to Independence .............. 71
3.2 Current Legal Regime of Assistance Agreement .................................................................. 74
3.2.1 Assisting Offender’s Offer: Connotation of ‘Meritorious Service’ .................................. 74
3.2.2 Criminal Justice Agencies’ Offer ...................................................................................... 76
3.3 Motivations for Assistance Agreement: Corruption-Related Crimes as Example ................ 76
3.3.1 Internal Motivation: Detect Effect .................................................................................... 77
3.3.2 External Motivations: International Trend ........................................................................ 80
3.4 Potential Risks ....................................................................................................................... 81
3.4.1 Risks on Protecting Assisting Offenders ........................................................................... 81
3.4.2 Risks on Protecting the Accused Who is Targeted ........................................................... 81
3.4.3 Risks of Miscarriages of Justice ........................................................................................ 82
3.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 83
4. Restoration Agreement ............................................................................................................... 83
4.1 Historical Review of Restoration Agreement: Ups and Downs ............................................ 85
4.2 Current Legal Regime of Criminal Reconciliation ............................................................... 90
4.2.1 Eligibility and Mechanism ................................................................................................ 91
4.2.2 Concession from Criminal Justice Agencies ..................................................................... 91
4.2.3 Comparison between MPS, SPP and SPC’ Regulations on Criminal Reconciliation ...... 92
4.3 Criminal Reconciliation in Practice: Field Study in Three Cities ......................................... 93
4.3.1 Criminal Reconciliation in People’s Procuratorates ......................................................... 95
4.3.1.1 General Description ................................................................................................... 95
(cid:1)
4.3.1.2 Proceedings ............................................................................................................... 98
4.3.2 Criminal Reconciliation in People’s Courts ...................................................................... 99
4.3.2.1 General Description ................................................................................................... 99
4.3.2.2 Proceedings ............................................................................................................. 101
4.4 Motivations and Potential Risks .......................................................................................... 102
4.4.1 Enhancing Efficiency? .................................................................................................... 102
4.4.2 Improving the Status of Victims? .................................................................................... 104
4.4.3 Social Stability: Key Words behind Criminal Reconciliation ........................................ 106
4.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 110
5. Characteristics of CPAs in China ............................................................................................ 111
5.1 CPAs in Practice: A Hybrid of Different Types ................................................................. 111
5.2 Differences among Three CPAs .......................................................................................... 111
5.3 Common Features of CPAs in the Chinese Criminal Justice .............................................. 112
5.3.1 On-going Expansion ........................................................................................................ 112
5.3.2 Imbalance between Substantial Justice and Procedural Justice ...................................... 113
5.3.3 Pragmatic Motivations .................................................................................................... 113
6. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 114
CHAPTER IV CRIMINAL PROCEDURAL AGREEMENTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES 115
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 115
2. Plea Agreement ......................................................................................................................... 116
2.1 Historical Review of Plea Agreement ................................................................................. 117
2.1.1 Before the 20th Century: The Emergence of Plea Bargaining ......................................... 117
2.1.2 Before the 1990s: Increasing Tolerance for Plea Agreement in Case Law .................... 119
2.1.3 Since the 1990s: Explicit Acceptance in Legislation and Case Law .............................. 122
2.2 Current Legal Regime of Plea Agreement .......................................................................... 124
2.2.1 Type I: Sentence Bargaining ........................................................................................... 124
2.2.1.1 Sentence Discount Offered by Courts ..................................................................... 125
2.2.1.2 Sentence Reduction by Choosing Courts ................................................................ 127
2.2.2 Type II: Charge Bargaining ............................................................................................. 128
2.2.3 Type III: Facts Bargaining .............................................................................................. 129
2.3 Motivations for Plea Agreement ......................................................................................... 130
2.4 Potential Risks ..................................................................................................................... 131
2.4.1 The Offender’s Perspective: Coercion v Willingness ..................................................... 131
2.4.2 The Victim’s Perspective: Participation vs Protection .................................................... 133
2.4.3 The Public’s Perspective: Indifferent or Ignorant ........................................................... 133
2.5 Features of Plea Agreement in England and Wales ............................................................ 134
2.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 137
3. Assistance Agreement ............................................................................................................... 138
3.1 Historical Review of Assistance Agreement ....................................................................... 138
3.2 Current Legal Regime of Assistance Agreement ................................................................ 141
3.2.1 Categorization ................................................................................................................. 141
3.2.2 Content of Assistance ...................................................................................................... 142
3.2.3 Quality of Assistance ...................................................................................................... 143
3.2.4 Legal Concession ............................................................................................................ 144
3.3 Motivations for Assistance Agreement ............................................................................... 148
3.4 Potential Risks ..................................................................................................................... 149
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3.4.1 Risks Rooted in the Legal Regime .................................................................................. 150
3.4.2 Risks Caused by Criminal Justice Authorities: Malpractice and Corruption .................. 151
3.4.3 Risks Caused by the Assisting Offender: Inaccuracy, False Testimony, and Drip-Feeder
153
3.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 155
4. Restoration Agreement ............................................................................................................. 155
4.1 Historical Review of Restoration Agreement ..................................................................... 156
4.2 Current Legal Regime of Restoration Agreement ............................................................... 158
4.2.1 Police Level ..................................................................................................................... 159
4.2.2 Prosecution Level ............................................................................................................ 159
4.2.2.1 Case Selection ......................................................................................................... 160
4.2.2.2 Conditions of Conditional Cautions ........................................................................ 160
4.2.2.3 Procedure to Issue Conditional Cautions ................................................................ 162
4.2.2.4 Expansion of Punitiveness and Pragmatic in Conditional Caution ......................... 162
4.2.3 Court Level ...................................................................................................................... 164
4.2.3.1 Probation Service’s Pre-Sentence Report ............................................................... 164
4.2.3.2 Deferred Sentencing for Restorative Purposes ........................................................ 164
4.3 Motivations and Risks on Restoration Agreement .............................................................. 166
4.3.1 Crime Reduction? ............................................................................................................ 166
4.3.2 Cost Reduction? .............................................................................................................. 168
4.3.3 Victim’s and Offender’s Satisfaction? ............................................................................ 168
4.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 169
5. Trends, Tension and Features of CPAs in England and Wales ............................................ 170
5.1 Overall Trends of CPAs in the English Criminal Justice .................................................... 171
5.1.1 Dimension I: Procedural Facilitations for CPAs ............................................................. 171
5.1.2 Dimension II: New Type of CPAs .................................................................................. 171
5.1.2.1 Legal Regime of DPA ............................................................................................. 171
5.1.2.2 Motivations on DPA ................................................................................................ 173
5.1.2.3 Potential Risks ......................................................................................................... 174
5.2 Exploration into the Ideology behind Expansion ................................................................ 175
5.3 Tension Areas ...................................................................................................................... 176
5.3.1 Task of Seeking Truth ..................................................................................................... 176
5.3.2 Burden on Offender ......................................................................................................... 177
5.3.3 Involvement of Victim .................................................................................................... 178
5.3.4 Power Distribution among Police, Prosecution, and Court ............................................. 178
5.4 Interaction between CPAs and Ordinary Procedure ........................................................... 179
5.4.1 Loosened Safeguards for Offenders ................................................................................ 179
5.4.2 Efforts in Preserving Integrity of Criminal Justice ......................................................... 179
6. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 181
CHAPTER V COORDINATE CPAS AND ORDINARY PROCEEDINGS: A COMPARISON
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1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 183
2. Impact Factors Shaping and Steering CPAs .......................................................................... 183
2.1 State Autonomy ................................................................................................................... 184
2.2 Internal Autonomy .............................................................................................................. 187
2.3 Control of the Power to Punish ........................................................................................... 191
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2.4 Modes of Penal Power ......................................................................................................... 195
2.5 Power Resources and Capacities ......................................................................................... 199
2.6 Evaluation on Penal State and Impact on CPAs ................................................................. 201
3. Plea Agreement ......................................................................................................................... 204
3.1 Similarities .......................................................................................................................... 204
3.2 Differences .......................................................................................................................... 205
3.2.1 Modus Operandi .............................................................................................................. 205
3.2.2 Effect of Pre-Trial Deals ................................................................................................. 205
3.2.3 Best Time for Cooperation .............................................................................................. 206
3.2.4 Content of Guilty Plea ..................................................................................................... 206
3.2.5 Exceptions for Concession .............................................................................................. 207
3.3 Major Tension Areas between Plea Agreement and Ordinary Procedure .......................... 208
3.3.1 Waiving Rights: Free Will v Coercion ............................................................................ 208
3.3.2 Quality of Procedure: Summary v Full-Dressed ............................................................. 208
3.3.3 Definition of Truth: Real v Accepted .............................................................................. 209
3.3.4 Impact of Plea Agreement Internal Arrangement v Public Law Nature ......................... 209
3.3.5 Justification: Remorse v Efficiency ................................................................................... 210
4. Assistance Agreement ............................................................................................................... 210
4.1 Similarities .......................................................................................................................... 211
4.2 Discrepancies ...................................................................................................................... 214
4.2.1 Targeted Crime ................................................................................................................ 214
4.2.2 Patterns of Assistance ...................................................................................................... 215
4.2.3 Form of Agreement ......................................................................................................... 215
4.2.4 Patterns of Concession .................................................................................................... 215
4.3 Major Tension Areas between Assistance Agreement and Ordinary Procedure ................ 216
4.3.1 Nature of Assistance: Contribution v Obligation ............................................................ 216
4.3.2 Cooperation Value v Cooperation Dilemma ................................................................... 216
4.3.3 Provide Assistance v Right against Self-Incrimination ................................................... 217
4.3.4 More Justice v Miscarriages of Justice ........................................................................... 217
5. Restoration Agreement ............................................................................................................. 217
5.1 Similarities ................................................................................................................................ 218
5.2 Discrepancies ............................................................................................................................ 220
5.2.1 Scope of Restoration Agreement ..................................................................................... 220
5.2.2 Conditions in Restoration Agreement ............................................................................. 221
5.2.3 Criminal Justice Agencies’ Disposals ............................................................................. 222
5.2.4 Bonus for Victims and Offenders .................................................................................... 222
5.2.5 Involvement of Non-Criminal Justice Institutions .......................................................... 223
5.3 Major Tension Areas between Restoration Agreement and Ordinary Procedure ............... 224
5.3.1 The Role of Attitude v Objectiveness ............................................................................. 224
5.3.2 Privatization v Publicity .................................................................................................. 225
5.3.3 Concession for Compensation v Fairness ....................................................................... 226
5.3.4 Administrative Sanction v Fair Trial ............................................................................... 226
6. Coordinating Tension Areas: Procedural Objectives and Corresponding Proposals ........ 226
6.1 Objectives of Criminal Procedure ....................................................................................... 226
6.2 Correct Conviction and Acquittal: Seeking Truth as Priority ............................................. 228
6.2.1 Offender’s Statement as Evidence .................................................................................. 228
6.2.2 Formulating Truth by Criminal Justice Agencies ........................................................... 230
6.2.3 Procedural Convenience .................................................................................................. 231
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