Creative Altruism - Journal of Futures Studies

14 Pages·2007·1.02 MB·English

A R T I C L E
.45
Creative Altruism: The Prospects for a
Common Humanity in the Age of
Globalization
Jay Weinstein
Eastern Michigan University
USA
Abstract
This essay examines some of the ways in which applied sociology can contribute to the repertoire of
responses that are available to those seeking to maximize the social benefits and minimize the social costs asso-
ciated with the phenomenon commonly referred to as "globalization." Based on the later work of Pitirim A.
Sorokin – founder and first Chair of the Department of Sociology at Harvard University, we propose to revitalize
the concept of creative altruism and to promote its widespread adoption as a tool of planned sociocultural
change. In the course of this discussion, we focus on the relationship between altruism and "coming to species
consciousness," as understood by classical philosophers and the earliest sociologists, by Sorokin himself, and by
contemporary researchers – especially Kristin Renwick Monroe. We conclude that the ideal of one world at
peace can be achieved – and, indeed must be achieved when the alternatives are considered – through the con-
scientious application of altruistic thought and practice.
For better or worse, humanity is now becoming a Postmodernization, or internationalization. Sociologist
unitary whole in an important and unprecedented way. George Ritzer has influenced many with his evocative
Many names have been given to this process; and term, McDonaldization.
because names create realities, it matters very much For the purposes of this discussion, we have cho-
which one we use. Some, beginning with the sociolo- sen an alternative formulation, one that might help us
gist Harold Innes and his student Marshall McLuhan, see to avoid some of the unwanted connotations that "glob-
it as a movement toward a global village. Architect and alization" and the other terms carry. This is the process
futurist Buckminster Fuller referred to the Spaceship of coming to species consciousness. The phrase charac-
Earth. Now current in many quarters is the term global- terizes an evolutionary movement toward a state in
ization. Some, with good reason, speak of capitalist which every member of the species Homo sapiensis
imperialism. Others say modernization, Westernization, aware that – beyond all secular differences – a common
Journal of Futures Studies, August 2004, 9(1): 45 - 58
Journal of Futures Studies
humanity exists and demands to be treated as person is part of a larger, effective whole. To
one. paraphrase the words of the poet John Donne:
No one is an island. No one stands alone.
Unfortunately, from a contemporary stand-
Highlights in the History of the Idea
point, "reason" is an outmoded term that now
The idea of species consciousness has can mean just about anything one chooses. For
been expressed in many different cultures and example, it can be argued that it is reasonable
historical eras. One of its most powerful state- for a person or group to commit genocide, pro-
ments is found in the Ethics, written in 1677 by vided that the deed is planned clearly and sys-
the Dutch-born philosopher Baruch (Benedict tematically (logically).2Today, the program that
de) Spinoza. According to Spinoza, underlying will help us realize our common humanity must
all of the diversity that characterizes the various give directives that are far more specific than
nations and ethnicities of the world, there is a "be rational," even if we do understand what
fundamental "harmony." He believed that this Spinoza really meant in his arguments against
harmony could be understood if we think clear- irrational philosophies and theologies.3
ly about the nature of humanity, and that it The German philosopher Immanuel Kant
would be realized if and when people act rea- (who lived during the era of the American and
sonably toward one another. "Nothing can be in French Revolutions) was not the first writer to
more harmony with the nature of any given attempt to improve upon Spinoza's program,
thing than other individuals of the same but he is certainly among the best remembered
species," Spinoza wrote. "Therefore for man in and most widely read. Kant believed that there
the preservation of his being and the enjoyment exist certain moral standards - rules of right and
of the rational life there is nothing more useful wrong – that allow people to understand them-
than his fellow-man who is led by reason" selves "under the form of eternity." These rules
(EthicsPart IV, Appendix: proposition IX). are absolute, or "categorical," in that they are
valid everywhere and always. In addition, such
rules are expressed in the form of a command,
The Possibility of Species Consciousness
as an "imperative," because one cannot avoid
acting in the way(s) they stipulate and still be
Spinoza and those who embrace his view-
considered an ethical person. In his Foundation
point believe that a species consciousness is
for the Metaphysic of Morals(1838[1961]: 581-
possible; in fact, they assume that it is inherent
82), Kant notes that an
in human nature. They also realize, however,
[I]mperative is Categorical [when] it concerns not
that it is not automatic. For there are many
the matter of action, or its intended result, but its
forces arrayed against it, including habit, super-
form and the principle of which it is itself a result;
stition, and prevailing public opinion, that must
and what is essentially good in it consists in the
be overcome before we can understand our- mental disposition, let the consequence be what it
selves "under the form of eternity."1This is an may. This imperative may be called that of
important point to remember as we consider Morality.
the possible outcomes of the rapid sociocultural In recognizing the importance of eternal,
changes now underway. That is, if we are going moral rules in the movement toward a species
to achieve species consciousness, something consciousness, Kant goes beyond the assertion
must be done: a program must be created and that "reason" is all that is required to understand
implemented to bring it about. and achieve a common humanity. For one
Spinoza chose to emphasize a program thing, because our actions must be rule gov-
that involved a turn toward what he called "rea- erned, the movement is viewed as normative
son." This concept suggests that if one thinks and thus requires learning. It may be true that
about the human condition in a clear and order- the potential to understand ourselves as parts
46 ly way it becomes apparent that every individual of a physical and spiritual whole is inborn, or at
Creative Altruism
least intuitive, and that even the youngest chil- familiar direction. For in Revolutionary France,
dren can grasp the idea. However, by the time Kant's work along with other sources, especially
most people reach maturity, they have either the writings of Adam Smith and his students
forgotten or have "unlearned" it - or, it is possi- (known collectively as the "Scottish moralist"
ble, they never understood it at all. philosophers), became the foundation for a new
In any case, Kant implied, people need to field that Comte called sociology.
learn, and to learn how to act in accord with, Saint-Simon and Comte investigated many
the categorical imperatives. This normative important topics, such as the possibility of
aspect also allows for the possibility that people studying human relationships according to the
can think and behave in a manner that appears scientific method (another idea that can be
"rational" and at the same time act immorally: traced to Kant). Often overlooked among their
for example, when orderly, clear thinking never- innovations, however, is their interest in the
theless goes against or ignores a key impera- kind of behavior specified in the Golden Rule,
tive. Finally, when the importance of impera- Kant's imperative, and in similar moral norms.
tives is considered, it is obvious that the possi- From a sociological perspective, such behavior
bility of achieving species consciousness is just is prosocial– for the collective good. This can
that, a possibility, not something that is be contrasted with behavior that is selfish-- for
inevitable. In brief, reason is necessary, but it the good of the self. Comte coined the terms
must be guided by the "rules of the game." whereby we still refer to these contrasting
modes of action: altruismand egoism. Using
Enter Altruism Comte's word, then, the Golden Rule and the
So, we might ask, did Kant have any partic- categorical imperative counsel altruism. Thus
ular moral imperative(s) in mind when he con- the essential connection was made between
nected them to the quest for a common altruism, on one hand, and the movement
humanity? The answer is "yes," he had a very toward species consciousness, on the other, a
important one in mind. In fact, in keeping with connection of which the French founders of
his view that such moral norms are universal sociology were well aware.
and eternal, he drew upon what we now know Comte considered altruism and egoism to be two
to be a cultural universal: a norm that is part of distinct motives within the individual. He did not
the morality of every human society ever stud- deny the existence of self-serving motives, even for
helping; the impulse to seek self-benefit and self-
ied.4 Because it is so common, it has been
gratification he called egoism. But Comte believed
expressed in many different ways. Most people
that some social behavior was an expression of an
in the English speaking world know it as the
unselfish desire to "live for others." It was this sec-
Golden Rule: "do unto other others as you
ond type of motivation to benefit others that he
would have others do unto you." Kant put it this
called altruism (Comte 1851/1875; quoted in
way (as translated from the original German): Batson 1991: 5).
"Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the
same time will that it should become a universal Summary of the History of the Idea
law." In other words, see to it that anything that The concept of a common humanity with
you might do could and should be done by a consciousness of itself is very old and widely
everyone else in the world.5 discussed. In fact, for many centuries in
Because of Kant's influence in academic cir- Western and Eastern philosophy the idea was
cles, his ideas - including his categorical impera- believed to be self evident to anyone who could
tive - were studied carefully by his contempo- reason properly. Ultimately, such beliefs were
raries; and they have continued to influence dismissed as too vague and/or ambiguous.
social thinkers to this day. Two of his contem- However, in several instances, such as in
poraries in France, Henri Saint-Simon (the older) Immanuel Kant's writings on morality, philoso-
and August Comte (the younger), worked on phers attempted to make the quest for a com- 47
developing moral philosophy in what is now a mon humanity more specific. In the early 19th
Journal of Futures Studies
century, Kant in particular proposed in his 3. What is the relationship between altru-
moral imperative a certain kind of thought and ism and the quest for a common
action that would be an effective means to humanity?
achieve the goal of species consciousness. At 4. Assuming that such a quest is possible
about the same time, Auguste Comte, founder and desirable, what needs to be done?
of the discipline of sociology, coined the term First we consider the first three questions
to refer to such thought and action that is used together, then we continue with a few addition-
to this day: altruism. In this way, the links al thoughts on each as we attempt to answer
between a common humanity, species con- the fourth question.
sciousness, reason, moral imperatives, and
altruism were forged. The Alternatives
In Karl Marx's revolutionary program to Short of an enormous and unforeseen
create a common humanity, one finds the key catastrophe, there appears to be nothing that
principle of a group in-itself. This indicates that can stop the increasing connectedness occur-
group-consciousness, including in this context ring between and among people in all parts of
species-consciousness, is the product of com- the world. Promoted by powerful technologies
mon life conditions plus a shared understanding and institutions such as the Internet, satellite
by members of the group (species) that they television, radio, and telephones, the spread of
have common interests - that the wellbeing of English as a common world language, common
each depends on the wellbeing of all. Also nec- currencies such as the Euro and the dollar, and
essary is a common "other" against which the the growth, consolidation, and ever-expanding
group (species) can identify itself. In the case of reach of multinational corporations, McLuhan's
the human species, in particular, this other is global village is, or is on the verge of becoming,
nature, with which humanity as a whole can a reality. Yet, if "village" is the proper metaphor,
and must cooperate in order to survive and it is hardly a village at peace.
prosper. Because, it appears, the achievement The social, economic, and political inequal-
of species consciousness is neither automatic ities that exist between and within the village's
nor inevitable, the need for a program to guide "neighborhoods" range from substantial to
the quest is once more apparent. In the follow- enormous and from enormous to (there is no
ing section, we discuss such a program. other way to put it) obscene. Some residents
own two or more cars that cost tens of thou-
sands of dollars each, whereas others cannot
Applied Sociology and the Quest for
even afford an ox cart. Many political and reli-
a Common Humanity
gious "leaders" of the village are benefiting
mightily, some as never before, by preaching
Thus far, we have discussed some aspects
hatred and intolerance of one's neighbors. God's
of species consciousness and the related con-
name is routinely invoked to justify all manner
cept of a common humanity. Our exploration
of murder and mayhem. In some neighbor-
has also briefly touched on several related ideas,
hoods, residents are on the verge of starvation,
including Kant's imperative, Comte's altruism,
while in others food is thrown away by the ton.
and Marx's theories of social change. This has
The emerging political system of the vil-
helped to lay the foundation for addressing four
lage is highly undemocratic. It is, rather, an
key questions that do (or ought to) concern
autocracy in which those individuals, groups,
people today. These are:
and geographic regions currently wielding the
1. What is the alternative to species con-
most power have shaped the system in a way
sciousness, and what would the conse-
that will keep them in power well into the fore-
quences be if people did notpursue it?
seeable future. Free markets and sovereign con-
2. Is altruism real or is it just a dream of
48 sumers do not characterize the village's emerg-
philosophers?
ing economy, as its defenders would like us to
Creative Altruism
believe. Nor is the economy the socialistic sys- principles of our age – tribalism and globalism –
tem – once embraced by capitalism's critics, clash at every point except one: they may both
which operates according to the principle of be threatening to democracy."7
"from each according to his abilities and to each In the absence of species consciousness,
according to his needs." Instead, it has thus far there is no reason to believe that current trends
proved to be simply a more extended and more will cease or even slow down. To the contrary, a
coordinated version of the system of huge global village that is not a village for-itself is
monopolistic corporations that first emerged in bound to be a village in continual conflict and
the early twentieth century.6As the global vil- strife: autocratic politics, monopolistic econom-
lage has taken shape, these corporations have ics, exploitation, religious intolerance, inter-eth-
achieved unparalleled political influence. It has nic violence, and militarism. Of course, these
also become increasingly clear that they are are hardly new problems. But they are serious
indifferent to the goods and services they actu- and dangerous in a new way when they occur
ally produce. For their main business is to maxi- in humanity's one and only village, with no
mize profits by underpaying and, when desir- other place to go and no one other than our-
able, laying-off workers and by cajoling, tricking, selves to whom we can turn for help. That is
or forcing consumers to buy more and more why the need for all people to see themselves
things that are less and less important. as one has never been more urgent.
The glamorous and seemingly unstop-
pable spread of the Internet, cell phones, the Summary of the Research Literature
dollar, and corporate economics has a another, Research in the several fields leaves many
often unpleasant, side that residents of the unanswered questions about the reality of
more affluent neighborhoods tend to overlook. species consciousness and altruism.8The ambi-
Along the same channels that bring innovations guity is, in part, the result of differences among
such as satellite TV to the far corners of the vil- disciplinary perspectives from which the prob-
lage, great fear and anxiety flow about the loss lem is viewed. Some studies focus on motiva-
of traditional, local beliefs and practices. tion, others do not even see motives as neces-
In response to such fears, the less privi- sary; some studies are concerned with the
leged residents seek solace in what they believe behavior of individuals, whereas others look to
to be the past (even if it is a largely mythical the group level; etc. Another factor that cannot
past). Old languages, art, and music are revived be ignored is an ideological tendency to dismiss
from the brink of extinction; and ethnic power apparently altruistic acts as mere manifestations
and "cleansing" movements arise to challenge of selfishness. Those who take this position
the cultural homogenization overtaking the vil- tend to credit themselves as "realists." Yet, on
lage. Religious fundamentalism is embraced in reflection, it seems obvious that no facts or logi-
increasing numbers by adherents of the village's cal arguments will persuade such people that
major faiths: Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, altruism can sometimes be realistic. Thus, they
Islam, and in smaller sects and denominations actually have little to contribute to serious
as well, in response to the forces of seculariza- research on the subject. (see, especially,
tion. Nationalism, and its frequent companion Monroe, Barton, and Klingermann 1990)
militarism, experiences a significant revival in an Despite the disciplinary and ideological
attempt to counter the reach of multinational obstacles yet to be overcome, it is obvious that
institutions. These are not aberrations or myste- the phenomenon of altruism is currently of
rious contradictions. Rather, the current growth interest to a wide range of scholars in many
and popularity of such movements, and the fields. Moreover, as our knowledge about altru-
potential of social conflict that they entail, are as ism, egoism, and their sources and conse-
much a part of the global village as e-mail or quences increases, it becomes increasingly clear
MTV. As Benjamin Barber notes in his widely that our behavior toward others is intimately 49
read work on this phenomenon, "the two axial connected to our self-preservation - as individu-
Journal of Futures Studies
als, as groups, and as a species. Sociologists and subjects apart from the others is a shared gen-
others are still far from solving all of the riddles eral perspective, a "cognitive orientation." She
that are associated with altruism, but a signifi- concluded that the perspective itself, and not
cant movement among those interested in it is the specific factors, consistently accounted for
taking shape around the connection between altruism.
pro-social behavior and perceptions of a com- For Monroe, the altruistic perspective is
mon humanity. This connection is especially best understood in philosophical and psycho-
important in the work of one of the leaders of logical terms, although she uses principles from
this movement, political psychologist Kristen other social sciences as well. In fact, the per-
Monroe. spective is quite complex and consists of several
Monroe has provided a significant contri- components: cognition and cognitive process-
bution to the literature on altruism. In The es, expectations, worldviews, empathy, and
Heart of Altruism: Perceptions of a Common views of self. Following is a brief description of
Humanity, she defines altruism as "behavior each of these components.
intended to benefit another, even when this (cid:1)Cognition is the process by which indi-
risks possible sacrifice to the welfare of the viduals make sense of the world. It
consists of being aware of something
actor." (Monroe 1996: 6) Monroe examines the
and making a judgment about it. It also
possible influences that encourage altruism and
accounts for cultural norms. It allows
highlights the importance of separating this dis-
one to interpret how altruists see them-
cussion from a rational choice perspective. As a
selves, as members of a group or as indi-
staunch advocate of the plausibility of altruism
viduals.
as part of human nature, Monroe succinctly (cid:1)Expectations imply what the altruist
argues against the limitations provided by expects will occur under certain circum-
rational choice theorists. (As noted above, the stances. These include opinions, beliefs,
key to their argument is that egoism is normal and stereotypes of what helping means.
behavior, even in the performance of apparently (cid:1)Worldviews consist of people's ideas
other-directed acts.) about the world and themselves, for
example, how they think about them-
Monroe's work is based on an in-depth
selves as individuals and as members of
study of individuals whose behavior can be
groups.
placed along a continuum from altruistic to ego-
(cid:1)Empathy is the result of a cognitive and
istic and which includes several points in
affective response toward someone
between. As in the work of Fogelman (1994)
else'sfeelings.
and Oliner and Oliner (1988), Monroe argues (cid:1)Finally, views of self are related to one's
that the most altruistic individuals are rescuers identity perception and whether or not
of Jews during the Holocaust. In addition to the it is consistent with behavior.
rescuers, along the continuum from more-to- Based on these components, the most
less altruistic are heroes, philanthropists, and altruistic subjects – especially the rescuers –
entrepreneurs. For Monroe, entrepreneurs dis- consistently saw themselves as members of a
play the least altruistic behavior. Using these shared humanity. They thought of themselves
categories, she contrasts research findings with as ordinary people who had not done anything
theoretical assumptions based on both rational praiseworthy by saving other people's lives.
choice and altruistic theories. Her conclusion is They exhibited a universalistic worldview, in
that rational choice theories cannot account for which being part of the human community was
the behavior of altruists. more important than being part of a just world
Monroe originally believed that the roots or believing in the inherent goodness of people.
of altruism might be traced to factors such as They understood what is meant to be in need,
parental modeling, education, and religion; but and therefore felt that they had no choice in
50 her findings did not support this. Rather, she their actions.
discovered that what sets the more altruistic Monroe's concept of common humanity
Creative Altruism
reinforces the findings of other research on interested in the phenomenon of altruism.
altruism. For instance, Sorokin noted how his However, the field that has the potential to
"good neighbors" had a similar attitude toward make one of the most important contributions
the whole world and humanity. Similarly, Oliner to the practical aspects of this research is
and Oliner (1988:84) referred to a kind of cogni- applied sociology. There are two main reasons
tion or inclusiveness as "a predisposition to for this. First, the field, although labeled "sociol-
regard all people (universally) as equals and to ogy," is highly interdisciplinary and thus includes
apply similar standards of right and wrong to insights and principles from psychology, social
them without regard to social status or ethnici- philosophy, biology, anthropology, and political
ty." Fogelman, too, discussed the importance of science.9Second, sociology was founded by
"awareness" or the process of transformation Comte and his contemporaries as an applied
that a bystander goes through before becoming field and with the explicit mission of promoting
a rescuer. Such awareness signifies that others altruistic thought, behavior, and institutions.
are in need and that all should be treated equal- Many "mainstream" sociologists have, of
ly. In a broader sense, Monroe's research draws course, taken the field in different directions.
on Kant's categorical imperative, Comte's altru- Yet, the original interest in altruism and related
ism, and Marx's theories of social change, as dis- phenomena has been kept alive, at least at the
cussed above. margins of the discipline and especially among
Monroe's concept at first proved difficult those involved in sociological practice. So, we
to test empirically. For each of her key compo- may ask, is there in applied sociology a program
nents includes several intricate, multi-leveled that links the research of Oliner and Oliner,
variables. However, her more recent research Fogelman, Monroe, and the others with moral
(Monroe 2001) suggests further ways to analyze imperatives, altruism, species consciousness,
the altruistic perspective, in the context of res- and the human prospect? Our answer to this
cue behavior and other uncalculated, sponta- question is a cautious "yes." Although a com-
neous acts. Although this is highly analytical plete and perfect program has yet to be creat-
work, rooted in psychological, linguistic, and ed, applied sociology today is well on its way to
psychoanalytic theories, it does provide a clear- developing a commonly accepted set of ethical
er understanding of the interconnections dimensions and/or moral imperatives that fea-
among altruism, morality, and our sense of ture altruism.10 In fact, a framework for this task
selves. In particular, she has discovered that has already been established.
"morality is driven not by ratiocination or reli- The framework to which we refer was first
gion but by identity and perceptions of self in proposed by the sociologist, Pitirim A. Sorokin
relation to others." (Monroe 2001:491) That is, (1880-1968), whose work was mentioned earlier.
the human need for consistency and self- Sorokin was the first Chair of the Department of
esteem, and our desire to be treated by others Sociology at Harvard University, and he served
as we treat them, result in a "universal entitle- as President of the American Sociological
ment." This is an entitlement to extend univer- Association in 1964. Among the key concepts
sal rights to others (compare with Kant's cate- introduced by him are sensateand ideational
gorical imperative); and, according to Monroe, culture types, creative altruism, and integralism.
it is what drives people to be moral actors. Since Sorokin's death, several studies have sup-
plemented his approach, some with explicit ref-
Elements of the Program erence to him but, because his contributions
If it is both desirable and possible for peo- were generally ignored, most lacking such cita-
ple, everywhere, to become more altruistic, tions.11Among the works that do cite him are
then the next step is to advance the program those of Kristen Monroe, especially in relation
meant to achieve this goal, the program begun to her discovery of the important cognitive ori-
by Spinoza, Kant, Comte, and Marx. We have entation, perception of a common humanity. 51
noted how researchers in several disciplines are
Journal of Futures Studies
Creative Altruism: A Summary emerging (if it could be helped along).
According to Sorokin, each type of culture
We focus here on Sorokin's work at the
is characterized by a particular way of knowing
Research Center in Creative Altruism at Harvard
about reality. The sensate stage is characterized
University to examine his concept of creative
by the core belief that truth is based on the
altruism and to indicate how it can be used by
senses alone. This is opposed to both the truth
applied sociologists today. Also relevant are
of reason and a supersensory truth, which per-
Sorokin's contributions as viewed by his biogra-
meate the idealistic and ideational types of cul-
pher, Barry V. Johnston. Johnston has stated
tures. By the rule of "logico-meaningful" affinity,
that, by the end of his long and productive
whereby specific cultural traits reflect the mas-
career, Sorokin had arrived at an integrated the-
ter values, the sensate stage is dominated by
ory of social action and reform. (Johnston 1995:
materialism, greed, and egoism.
127-28)
With the help of philanthropist Eli Lilly and
[Sorokin's paradigm] frames a universe of dis-
course, produces an ontological and epistemologi- others, Sorokin founded the Center to combat
cal consensus on the nature of social reality and the exclusive role played by sensate beliefs and
knowledge; sets malleable boundaries for doing practices in contemporary society. In their
sociology; and emphasizes the application of place, he sought to promote behavior based on
knowledge to practical problems of existence. altruistic values and integralism, which com-
(Johnston 1998: 17) bines all three ways of knowing reality. (the sen-
Guided by these principles, applied sociol-
sory, the rational, and the super-rational) This
ogists are currently in a position to influence
combination is the hallmark of idealistic culture.
the movement toward a species consciousness
To Sorokin, the time had come to do some-
by practicing what Sorokin preached. That is,
thing about transforming society through the
the study of creative altruism and the method-
application of integralism, to act in a reconstruc-
ologies to put it into practice are key steps in
tive way. (Johnston 1995: 127, 128, 240)
developing a program for our global village that
As Johnston (1995: 204) observes, howev-
works. (Weinstein 2000a: 6)
er, "the research of the Center failed to start a
Following the founding of the Research
significant mass movement or to institutionalize
Center for Creative Altruism at Harvard
the study of altruism in the social sciences." The
University in the late 1940s, Sorokin explored
sociological community showed little interest in
the principles of a social science based on an
altruism, integralism, or the reconstruction of
integral philosophy and a new applied science,
society. In fact Sorokin's work, especially the
which he called amitology. (see Sorokin 1954a;
earlier volumes of Dynamics, was criticized as
b) His integral philosophy, or integralism, is pre-
metaphysical. Johnston (1995: 174) suggests the
sented as the solution to problems associated
reason for this negative reaction:
with the most recent stage of a long historical
Sorokin's methods simply will not sustain his argu-
cycle. This cycle is comprised of three alternat- ments with the precision he desires...what he has
ing types of cultures: the sensate, the dominant produced in Dynamics and the works that follow
type in the contemporary Western world; the is a broad and valuable philosophy of history. It is
ideational, characterized by spirituality and a start, not a science...
altruism; and the idealistic, a transitional stage As Johnston also points out, the critics
that occurs between the other two. These are failed to see that in the fourth volume of
described and illustrated extensively in his com- DynamicsSorokin hadarrived at integralism, a
prehensive four-volume study, Social and theory of social reform. It appears that by then
Cultural Dynamics. (Sorokin 1962; also see the intellectual community was no longer inter-
Johnston 1995: 143-49) Sorokin believed that ested. Nevertheless, many sociologists now
the present stage, which he further defined as believe that the time has come to continue the
cynical or late sensate, is on the verge of work that began with Sorokin's explorations.
52
decline and that a new, idealistic stage might be Clearly, given the nature of today's social prob-
Creative Altruism
lems and the challenges of the global village, it importance of altruistic phenomena. However,
might be wise at least to consider what Sorokin if such ideas are to aid in our quest for a global
called "positive types of social phenomena." For, village at peace, we must first teach and learn
as he argued, too much of social science has about their underlying values and positive
focused on negative types: effects. Our schools and colleges must develop
A scientific study of positive types of social phe- and offer courses that focus on the teachings of
nomena is a necessary antidote to that of negative altruism. Then, on this informed basis, we
types of our cultural, social and personal world. might try to modify our culture and social insti-
The moral effect alone fully justifies a further tutions by acting through the concerted actions
investigation of persons and groups of good will
of individuals united as groups.
and good deeds.(Sorokin 1950: 87)
Degrees of Altruism in the Work of
Amitological Principles
Sorokin and Monroe
The activist part of Sorokin's program was
We have reviewed some of the literature
the development of amitology, the applied
on altruism principally to stress the importance
aspect of integralism. Sorokin defines amitology
of learning and teaching about it, and the ways
in Formsand Ways(1951) as: "The applied sci-
in which we might approach practicing it in the
ence or art of developing friendship, mutual aid
real world. Of course, many people are already
and love in individual and intergroup relations."
altruistically inclined; but the philosophy and
If the goals of amitology are to be achieved,
techniques of altruism are rarely if ever part of
Sorokin noted, not only is it necessary to inves-
our formal education. Even more serious is the
tigate altruistic phenomena, but altruistic acts
fact that most people, even those who study
must be practiced by ordinary people involved
sociology, have not had the opportunity to
in common social settings. Sorokin wrote in
reflect on the phenomenon. One gets the
Altruistic Love(Sorokin 1950: 10), referring to
impression that when people hear about altru-
the altruistic activities of "good-neighbors":
ism, they either disregard it as unimportant, or
Great altruists alone cannot supply even the very
they believe that it is unattainable.13
minimum of love and mutual help necessary for
Taken as a whole, Sorokin, Monroe, and
any surviving society...it is furnished by thousands
the research literature on the subject, in gener-
and millions of our plain "good-neighbors." Each
al, strongly indicate that various degreesof altru-
giving a modest contribution of love, in their totali-
ism exist; and much human behavior can be
ty they produce an enormous amount of "love
energy". Without this moral foundation of the explored along the diverse range encompassed
deeds of the "good-neighbors" no society can be by the concept and phenomenon. This, in turn,
satisfactory. suggests the need to invent more effective tech-
At the Center, Sorokin produced his major niques for ennobling human beings, and,
works on altruism, from which we can draw through these perfected techniques and
some of his definitions.12In Reconstruction increased knowledge, it will become possible to
(Sorokin 1948), he defines altruism as develop appropriate strategies for planned
the action that produces and maintains the physi- social change (Sorokin 1948: 234). Finally, in
cal and/or psychological good of others. It is order for our techniques and plans to be truly
formed by love and empathy, and in its extreme effective, we must show not only that they are
form may require the free sacrifice of self for
important to pursue, but also that they work.
another.
Although we have seen that much research and
In Altruistic Love (Sorokin 1950), he charac-
related work remain to be done, considering
terizes "good neighbors" along these lines:
the centrality of the concept of altruism in the
A quest for sympathy, understanding, and encour-
social science tradition and the current state of
agement – the desire to find a co-sympathizer in
affairs in the world, it seems well worth the
either despair or loneliness – is just as strong in
effort.
human beings as the need for food or clothing. 53
These comments obviously point to the The observation that there are degrees of
Journal of Futures Studies
altruistic behavior – that might be measured delineated three broad categories of quasi-altru-
along a continuum – is tied to a contrast istic motivation: (1) spontaneity, (2) lack of
between the "rational" actors of classical eco- choice, and (3) the constancy and universality of
nomic theory and altruists. Monroe has pointed the altruistic bond (Monroe 1996: 234).
out that rational choice theories, which equate Similarly, Sorokin (1950: 39) found that
seemingly altruistic behavior with acts pursued "...the majority of 'good-neighbors' have a simi-
solely for extrinsic rewards, cannot account for lar attitude toward the whole world and
altruism. Not all normal human behavior con- humanity."
sists of the pursuit of individual self-interest. They are not notable altruists; but all in all they
You will recall that, based on her research, the are seemingly above the average in their altruistic
factor that best explains altruism is a cognitive activities and "good-neighborliness." Most of them
orientation, one that is not considered in ration- do not look heroic in their good deeds. Their altru-
ism is plain and fairly ordinary. It is however,
al choice or related theories: the perception of a
real...their plain good deeds make the moral foun-
common humanity.
dation of any society (Sorokin 1950: 7-10).
While there are clear cognitive influences on altru-
These findings bear on recent and future
ism, the influence does not take the form tradition-
research in sociology and other fields. For
ally suggested in the literature. Instead, the rele-
example, we might narrow our focus to the
vant cognitive component centered more on altru-
study of particular degrees of altruism (from
ist's world views and canonical expectations about
what constitutes normal behavior and on their "pure" egoism to "pure" altruism) and various
perceptions of a shared humanity (Monroe 1996: behavioral patterns (spontaneity, lack of choice,
197, our emphasis). constancy, and universality) along Monroe's
Monroe's ideas about what it means to continuum. Also, we might concentrate on spe-
perceive a shared or common humanity should cific social contexts. Thus, on the high end of
sound a familiar note by now. A worldview is the scale of Monroe's altruism, we might study
"important to the extent to which it provides a authentic heroes. Or, on the low end, we may
sense of connectedness to others ... a percep- prefer to focus on the type of persons who we
tion of self at one with all mankind ... a different are more likely to encounter in day-to-day inter-
way of seeing things." actions.
It is not any mystical blending of the self with
another; rather it is a very simple but deeply felt
Conclusion: Altruism and the Global
recognition that we all share certain characteris-
tics and are entitled to certain rights, merely by Village
virtue of our common humanity. It constitutes a
powerful statement about what it means to be a Popular culture and perspectives like
common humanity (Monroe 1996: 206). rational choice theory would have us believe
In directly addressing the question of that altruism as something dangerous, impossi-
degrees of altruism, Monroe (1996:7) observes ble or, at best, of little practical value. Yet, a con-
that "the world is not divided into altruists and siderable amount of research in several fields
non-altruists." Rather, pure self-interested has demonstrated that it is real and that it has
behavior and pure altruism are the two poles of an important role to play in human relations. In
her continuum, and normal behavior generally fact, the theories of Sorokin, Monroe, and oth-
occurs at some point between them. Some ers have suggested that altruism can mitigate if
people "engage in quasi-altruistic behavior, in not solve many of the social problems encoun-
other words, without being altruists." And, in tered today, including such controversial issues
her analysis, quasi-altruistic behavior is normal as religious and ethnic intolerance, family crisis,
behavior that exhibits some but not all of the health care, and homelessness. More than a
defining characteristics of altruism. Based on a century after Comte's death and decades after
54 series of intense, in-depth interviews with sever- Sorokin's, the study of altruism is now begin-
al ordinary people and "good-neighbors," she ning to make inroads into our educational sys-