Creation Matters Vol. 15 No. 1 January/February 2010

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by  Creation Research Society

Volume 15, Number 1 January / February 2010
— A publication of the Creation Research Society —
The Scopes Trial: William J. Bryan’s Fight News release
Controversial Discoveries
against Eugenics and Racism
Being Made by Cedarville
by Jerry Bergman, Ph.D.
Geologist
E ighty-three years ago tion, the text remained in use
“the trial of the centu- throughout the state. C edarville, Ohio — Dr. John Whit-
ry,” the now-infa- more, associate professor of geolo-
Harvard law professor
mous Scopes gy at Cedarville University,
Alan Dershowitz (1990, p.
evolution trial, occurred recently presented a paper on his
2) correctly noted that
in Dayton, Tennessee Grand Canyon research during the annual
those actively advocating
(Lienesch, 2007). The meeting of the Geological Society of
evolution in 1925 includ-
law was supported by America (GSA) in Portland, Oregon,
ed “racists, militarists, and
famous Christian attor- October 18-21.
nationalists,” who used
ney William J. Bryan and evolution “to push some This annual meeting attracts thou-
opposed by famous ag- pretty horrible programs,” sands of geologists who converge to
nostic attorney Clarence including forced steriliza- share their scientific work with one an-
Darrow. At issue in the tion. Those who wanted to other. Whitmore has been studying the
1925 trial were certain prevent the immigration of Coconino Sandstone for about 10 years
chapters on evolution and people judged “unfit” and and is making some controversial dis-
eugenics in a biology text by “inferior,” and of “inferior ra- coveries.
George W. Hunter, titled A
cial stock” pushed “Jim Crow” The Coconino Sandstone is a rock
Civic Biology (1914), that was
laws, rationalizing their agenda on layer near the top of the Grand Canyon.
mandated by the state of Tennessee
the grounds that blacks were racially inferior
and many other states. ... continued on p. 5
(Dershowitz, 1990, p. 2). Dershowitz added
For nearly a decade Hunter’s book was that the eugenics movement “took its impe-
the most widely-used high school science tus from Darwin’s theory of natural selec-
textbook in the nation. The text was en- tion,” explaining that German militarism
dorsed by many distinguished professors,
…drew inspiration from Darwin’s
including those at both Brown and Colum-
survival of the fittest. The anti-im-
bia Universities (Larson, 1997). Tennessee
migration movement, which had suc-
had no problem with the bulk of the text,
ceeded in closing American ports of
which covered earth’s plants and animals. entry to “inferior racial stock,” was
Then, in March of 1925, the Tennessee grounded in a mistaken belief that
legislature passed a law that made it illegal certain ethnic groups had evolved
in public schools “to teach any theory that more fully than others. The very
denies the story of the Divine Creation of book — Hunter’s Civic Biology —
man as taught in the Bible, and to teach from which John T. Scopes taught
instead that man has descended from a lower Darwin’s theory of evolution to high
order of animals” (Ginger, 1958, p. 3). school students in Dayton, Tennes-
see, contained dangerous misappli-
The statute was aimed at teaching the
cations of that theory. It explicitly
evolutionary origins ofhuman beings(“the
accepted the naturalistic fallacy and
Divine Creation of man”), not the origin of repeatedly drew moral instruction
the rest of life. The law was intended to from nature. Indeed, its very title,
allow parents the right to instruct their chil- Civic Biology, made it clear that
dren in matters of origins, human nature, biology had direct political implica- Dr. John Whitmore collects
and destiny. Because the law did not openly tions for civic society. a sample of Coconino Sandstone.
conflict with any section inA Civic Biology, Photo credit:
... continued on p. 2 Scott L. Huck/Cedarville University
which never directly taught human evolu-
prove domesticated animals by breeding, …in which mental and moral defects
Bryan’s Fight
then “future generations of men and women were present in one or both of the
...continued from page 1
on the earth” can also “be improved by original parents. The “Jukes” family
Darwin explained in detail how selection applying to them the laws of selection.” is a notorious example…. In seventy-
functioned and the importance of war in Hunter (1914, p. 261) stressed that this is five years the progeny of the original
generation has cost the state of New
evolution. He stressed “how all-important, no small concern because nothing less than
York over a million and a quarter
in the never-ceasing wars of savages, fidel- the “improvement of the future race” is at
dollars, besides giving over to the
ity and courage” were to evolution, adding stake. Hunter then, under the subheading
care of prisons and asylums consid-
that a nation with superior qualities, those “Eugenics,” which made it clear what type
erably over a hundred feeble-mind-
selected by natural selection, would have an of “improvement” programs he was refer-
ed, alcoholic, immoral or criminal
evolutionary advantage destroying the ring to, applied this idea to humans (1914,
persons. Another case … is the
weaker races (Darwin, 1871, p. 162). This p. 261):
“Kallikak” family. This family has
process of conflict was critical for evolution,
When people marry there are certain been traced to the union of Martin
and when natural selection that resulted
things that the individual as well as Kallikak, a young soldier of the War
from conflict — such as from war — ceases, the race should demand. The most of the Revolution, with a feeble-
evolution also ceases. Hitler and other dic- important of these is freedom from minded girl. She had a feeble-minded
tators stressed this point repeatedly in his germ diseases which might be hand- son from whom there have been to
bible, Mein Kampf. ed down to the offspring. Tubercu- the present time 480 descendants. Of
losis, that dreaded white plague these 33 were sexually immoral, 24
Bryan’s concern
which is still responsible for almost confirmed drunkards, 3 epileptics,
A major concern of attorney William J. one seventh of all deaths, epilepsy, and 143feeble-minded.
Bryan was the degradation of humans by and feeble-mindedness are handicaps Both of the Jukes and Kallikak family
evolution and the influence of evolution on which it is not only unfair but crim- studies have now been thoroughly debunked
war and national conflicts. The Hunter text inal to hand down to posterity. The by a reevaluation of the data and cases used
science of being well born is called
illustrated Bryan’s concern because it was to support the studies’ original conclusions
eugenics.
“laced with the racism of the day” (Larson, (Smith, 1985). These studies were the
1997, p. 23). Its discussion of eugenics When defending his eugenics program, “product of a powerful idea”—
included such scarlet passages as the follow- Hunter incorrectly concluded that tubercu- Darwinism—and they created “a social
ing openly racist claim (Hunter, 1914, p. losis (TB) is a genetic disease (TB is caused myth” that Hunter did much to spread
196): by bacteria pathogens). Furthermore, the (Smith, 1985, p. 193). The Kallikak family
At the present time there exist upon main cause of epilepsy and feeble-minded- study was translated into German in 1914,
the earth five races or varieties of ness is pathogens, trauma, and genetic dam- and the full text appeared in the German
man, each very different from the age occurring in the womb due to such academic journal Friedrich Mann’s Peda-
other … the highest type of all, the conditions as genetic non-disjunction, not gogishes Magazin. As a result, the Kallikak
Caucasians, [is] represented by the heredity as Hunter claimed. Hunter (1914, study had a significant impact in Nazi Ger-
civilized white inhabitants of Europe pp. 261-263, emphasis in original) then many. One example was the infamous July
and America. wrote that research had been completed on 14, 1933, sterilization law that began the
many different families in America, murder of millions of “inferior” persons
Hunter also wrote that if we can im-
Creation Matters
Contents
ISSN 1094-6632
Volume 15, Number 1
January / February 2010
The Scopes Trial: William J. Bryan’s Fight against
Copyright © 2010 Creation Research Society
Eugenics and Racism.....................................................1
All rights reserved.
Controversial Discoveries Being Made by Cedarville
Geologist..........................................................................1 General Editor: Glen W. Wolfrom
Speaking of Science Assistant Editor: Jean K. Lightner
Flying Fossils Found....................................................................5 For membership / subscription information,
DNA Repair Requires Teamwork.................................................5 advertising rates,
Arctic Tern Maintains World Record Title.....................................5 and information for authors:
To Advance Technology, Make Like Nature................................7
Tiktaalik Demoted to Has-Been...................................................7 Glen W. Wolfrom, Editor
Molecular Machines Use Moving Parts........................................8 P.O. Box 8263
...without Excuse! The Testimony of Succinate St. Joseph, MO 64508-8263
Dehydrogenase...............................................................6
Email: [email protected]
Math Matters: What Are Irrational Numbers?...............9 Phone/fax: [phone]
Matters of Fact...What Is Olbers’ Paradox? ...............10 Creation Research Society Website:
www.creationresearch.org
Ancestor of T. rex?........................................................11
All by Design: The Bear Necessities...........................12
Articles published inCreation Matters represent the
opinions and beliefs of the authors, and do not necessarily
reflect the official position of the CRS.
2 Creation Matters
(Smith, 1985, pp. 161-162). Hunter used the eve of World War I, including ster- the racism lurking quite undisguised in these
same reasoning that Hitler used to justify ilizing mental patients, criminals, passages had been the most left-leaning
his eugenic programs. For example under and other genetic “contaminants.” Democratic presidential candidate, William
the subheading “Parasitism and its Cost to Jennings Bryan. Mr. Bryan “stood at the
Hunter openly advocated the infamous so-
Society” Hunter (1914, p. 263) wrote that forefront of the most progressive victories
lution, negative genetics, to what he was
hundreds of in his time: women’s suffrage, the direct
alleging to be the problem, genetically infe-
election of senators, the graduated income
…families such as those described rior persons. The solution was (Hunter,
tax,” among others (Gould, 1991, p. 417).
above exist today, spreading disease, 1914, pp. 261-263):
His nickname since his first presidential
immorality, and crime to all parts of
If such people were lower animals;
candidacy (1896) was “The Great Common-
this country. The cost to society of
we would probably kill them off to
such families is very severe. Just as er,” and Bryan believed his battle against
prevent them from spreading. Hu-
certain animals or plants become evolution was an extension of both his pop-
manity will not allow this, but we do
parasitic on other plants or animals, ulist support and his life work (Gould, 1991,
have the remedy of separating the
these families have become parasitic p. 419).
sexes in asylums or other places and
on society. They not only do harm
in various ways preventing intermar- A major concern of Bryan was that
to others by corrupting, stealing, or
riage and the possibilities of perpet- Darwinism had been used to justify the
spreading disease, but they are actu-
uating such a low and degenerate German war machine and that the survival-
ally protected and cared for by the
race. of-the-fittest philosophy had been translated
state out of public money. Largely
for them the poorhouse and the asy- Many Tennesseans, especially African into the might-makes-right ethos that had
lum exist. They take from society, Americans, objected to the implications of engulfed Germany and threatened to spread
but they give nothing in return. They the whole evolution doctrine that were made to other countries (Gilbert, 1997 p. 31).
are true parasites. explicit in the very science text required by Bryan, a life-long opponent of solving na-
their state. Even prior to the 1925 Tennessee tional problems by war, was fearful that
Hunter then quotes the now-notorious
law, so great was the outcry against these other nations would soon emulate Germany
American eugenicist Charles Davenport
passages in many other states that the pub- in using “the martial view of Darwinism
(and the expression that Hitler later made
lisher, American Book Company, rewrote [that] had been invoked by most German
famous: “blood tells”), writing that families
them (Tennessee used the original 1914 intellectuals and military leaders as a justi-
which produce brilliant men and women did
edition until 1926). Even the book, Civic fication for war and future domination”
so because they received good inheritance
Biology, whose title implied eugenics, (Gould, 1991, pp. 421-422). Bryan even
from their ancestors. The text then used an
taught that it was our civic duty to apply resigned as Secretary of State in President
example from Davenport’s Heredity in Re-
eugenics to achieve racial improvement. Wilson’s cabinet in protest of America’s
lation to Eugenics, to illustrate the claim
entry into World War I.
that greatness is due to genes (Hunter, 1914, The ACLU becomes involved
p. 263). The story is about Elizabeth Tuttle, Bryan takes on the Scopes
a women “of strong will, and of extreme Soon after the Tennessee “anti-evolution case
law” was passed, the American Civil Liber-
intellectual vigor” who married Richard
ties Union (ACLU) began advertising for Even though his health was failing, Bryan
Edwards, a man “of high repute and great
volunteers to challenge the law in court. The took on the arduous Scopes case as an
erudition.” This union produced Jonathan
city of Dayton saw this as an opportunity attorney on the basis of several issues, in-
Edwards and many influential educators,
to attract both attention and tourism. The cluding his opposition to the Darwinian
judges, college presidents, and physicians.
politicians then urged the new young foot- philosophy of survival of the fit, might
(Hunter, 1914, pp. 263-264).
ball coach and math teacher, who once makes right, and his support of the solid
No mention was made of the role social substituted for a biology teacher, to claim Jeffersonian principle: “To compel a man
influence and privilege had in the success that he had violated the law during his to furnish contributions of money for the
of this family. Genetics was the only factor substitute teaching stint. propagation of opinions which he disbe-
given (Smith, 1985). Olasky and Perry lieves, is sinful and tyrannical” (Virginia
Prominent scientists from major univer-
(2005, p. 70) wrote that “Hunter’s view of Act for Establishing Religious Freedom,
sities soon flocked to Dayton to challenge
eugenics, widely accepted early in the twen- 1786). In other words, Bryan believed that
the right of the state to regulate the teaching
tieth century, was a common deduction in a democracy the people had the “right to
of human evolution in public schools. A
drawn from and associated with Darwinian determine what was taught in their schools”
critical point is that these expert witnesses
theory.” They added (2005, p. 70) that Hunt- (Gilbert, 1997, p. 31). Bryan pointed out
never once distanced themselves from the
er had first explained Darwinian evolution several implications that many professors at
many inflammatory racist passages in A
in five pages, then moved on to the meat of that time were drawing from Darwin’s the-
Civic Biology. Indeed, some of them were
the book, the section on ory.
active supporters of the eugenics movement,
…“heredity and variation” that in- as was Hunter’s text. Even after the abuses Among the implications that Bryan
cluded eugenics. This popular con- of Darwinian eugenics by the Nazis in the opposed was not only eugenics, but also the
nection between natural selection 1930s became common knowledge, some nihilistic morals of Nietzsche (as elucidated
and social engineering would soon
academics approved the eugenic passages in Darrow’s brief about the University of
fan the flames of opposition to teach-
in this once-required public high school Chicago in the Leopold-Loeb murder case)
ing Darwinism, particularly in light
book. and the “moral obligation” of “superior”
of the “remedies” that had “been
races, such as the Germans in World War
tried successfully in Europe” on the Among the first persons to awaken to
I, to overpower the weak races (e.g., the
No. 1 January / February 2010 3
Belgians) for the advantage of their future ically declined. Civilization is the Library Series.
welfare. Bryan had been awakened to this most dangerous enterprise upon Gilbert, J. 1997.Redeeming Culture: American Reli-
gion in an Age of Science. Chicago, IL: The
last concern by reading a book by Stanford which man ever set out. For when
University of Chicago Press.
University biologist Vernon L. Kellogg you take man out of the bloody brutal
Ginger, R. 1958.Six Days or Forever? Tennessee
(1917) that related his conversations with but beneficent hand of natural selec- versus John Thomas Scopes.New York: Ox-
the German General Staff in Belgium in tion you place him at once in the ford University Press.
1914. soft, perfumed, daintily gloved but Gould, S.J. 1981. A visit to Dayton: The site remains
far more dangerous hand of artificial a pleasant sleepy town, but to the bestial cause
The use of Darwinism to defend coer- selection. of the Scopes trial stirs again.Natural History.
cive eugenics that was then being taught in 90(10):8–18.
These were exactly Bryan’s concerns
American schools from Hunter’s book — Gould, S.J. 1987. William Jennings Bryan’s last
as he documented in his booklet titled the campaign: Scientists and their acolytes are part-
and promoted by academia — now seemed
Last Message (1980). In short, Bryan was ly to blame for the lengthy and bitter struggle
repulsive both to most scholars and most
concerned that an increasing number of against creationism. Natural History,
Americans. Bryan turned out to be right on 96(87):16–26.
students were attending high school and,
this point, while the promoters of eugenics Gould, S.J. 1991.Bully for Brontosaurus: Reflections
Bryan believed, that “Darwinism made man
as a corollary of human evolution were in Natural History. New York: W.W. Norton
embarrassingly wrong. He was right to ob- too much the product of essentially a mate- and Company.
rial Godless process that invited his degra- Hunter, G. 1914.A Civic Biology. New York: Amer-
ject to Hunter’s text because its interpreta-
dation through eugenics, too much a ican Book Company.
tion of science was wrong, and evolutionists
competitor in a struggle for survival that Kazin, M. 2006.A Godly Hero: The Life of William
were wrong to coercively impose their Dar-
Jennings Bryan. New York, NY: Alfred A.
justified rapacious business relations and
winian eugenics philosophy on public Knopf.
war between nations” (Kevles, 2007, p. x).
school students. The fact is, Bryan had Kellogg, V. 1917.Headquarters Nights: A Record of
identified “something deeply troubling” in Conclusions Conversations and Experiences at the Head-
quarters of the German Army in France and
the Scopes case — and that the “fault does
Bryan’s objections to evolution were openly Belgium. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1917.
lie partly with scientists and their acolytes”
related to Darwin’s writings about human Kevles, D. 2007. Forwardin N. C. Comfort,The
(Gould, 1991, p. 423). Panda’s Black Box: Opening up the Intelligent
rights, dignity, and humanity. Bryan was
Design Controversy. Baltimore, MD.: The
Bryan was also very concerned about especially concerned about defending the
Johns Hopkins University Press.
the effects of Darwin’s racism teachings, weak against the assaults of the strong and Larson, E.J. 1997.Summer for the Gods: The Scopes
such as the following passage from The powerful, a fact that resulted in his being Trial and America’s Continuing Debate over
Descent of Man: “With savages, the weak labeled “The Great Commoner.” Bryan, as Science and Religion. New York, NY: Basic
in body or mind are soon eliminated” a “political progressive,” was very con- Books.
(Darwin, 1871, p. 168). Bryan (1980, pp. cerned (Larson, 2007, p. 68) about the Larson, E.J. 2007. The classroom controversy: A his-
tory over teaching evolutionin N.C. Comfort,
24-25) made his concerns about the dignity
…Darwinism survival-of-the-fittest The Panda’s Black Box: Opening up the Intelli-
of humankind very clear in the presentation
thinking (known as social Darwin- gent Design Controversy. Baltimore, MD: The
he gave to the court: Johns Hopkins University Press.
ism when applied to human society)
Lienesch, M. 2007.In the Beginning: Fundamental-
Darwin reveals the barbarous senti- behind World War 1 militarism and
ism, the Scopes Trial: and the Making of the
ment that runs through evolution and postwar materialism. Of course Bry-
Antievolution Movement.Chapel Hill, NC: The
dwarfs the moral nature of those who an also held religious objections to University of North Carolina Press 2007.
become obsessed with it. ...Darwin Darwinism and he invoked [Harvard Olasky, M. and J. Perry. 2005.Monkey Business.
speaks with approval of the savage Biology Professor Louis] Agassiz’s Nashville, TN: Broadman and Holman.
custom of eliminating the weak so scientific arguments against it as Smith, J. David. 1985.Minds Made Feeble. Rock-
that only the strong will survive, and well—but his fervor on this issue ville, MD: Aspen.
complains that “we civilized men do arose from his social concerns. …
our utmost to check the process of With his progressive political instinct
elimination.” How inhuman such a of seeking legislative solutions to
doctrine as this! He [Darwin] thinks social problems, Bryan campaigned
it injurious to “build asylums for the for restrictions against teaching the Now Available
imbecile, the maimed and the sick” Darwinian theory of human evolu-
or to care for the poor. Even the tion in public schools. in the
medical men come in for criticism
When Bryan’s role in the Scopes trial is
because they “exert their utmost skill CRS Online Store
reviewed these many well-documented facts
to save the life of everyone to the
of history are often forgotten or ignored
last moment.”
(Gould, 1981; 1987).
Bryan then quoted Wiggam, a best-selling Gift
References
author in 1925, who wrote (quoted in Bryan,
1980, p. 25): Bryan, W.J. 1980.The Last Message of William
Certificates
Jennings Bryan. (A Reprint Commemorating
Evolution is a bloody business, but
the Fiftieth Anniversary of Bryan College,
civilization tries to make it a pink
1930–1980). Dayton, TN: Bryan College.
tea. Barbarism is the only process by
Darwin, C. 1871.Descent of Man. London: John
which man has ever organically pro- Murray. www.CRSbooks.org
gressed, and civilization is the only Dershowitz, A. 1990. Introductionin The Scopes Tri-
process by which he has ever organ- al. Birmingham, AL: Gryphon Notable Trials
4 Creation Matters
tures such as grains of very soft mica are Whitmore has been at Cedarville since
Cedarville Geologist
also evident under the microscope. 1991, and in 2009 began the University’s
...continued from page 1
first major in geology. Six of Whitmore’s
“We would not expect to see these
Most geologists believe that it was formed geology students, some of whom are in-
minerals if this sandstone was formed in a
in a wind-blown desert environment. They volved with his research, participated in the
desert,” shares Whitmore. “The blowing
believe that the formation’s large sloping 2009 GSA annual conference.
action of sand would quickly destroy these
cross beds are the remains of ancient desert
minerals; however they might survive if Contact:
sand dunes.
carried and deposited by water.” John Davis, Public Relations
For his research, Whitmore collected His findings are controversial because Cedarville University
samples of this sandstone for microscopic the Coconino Sandstone has been interpret- 937-766-4159
examination of the sand grains. His findings ed as being formed in a desert, since the [email protected]
show that the sandstone contains dolomite
first major publications on this sandstone
ooliths, small ball-like structures that are
75 years ago.
only formed in marine settings. Other fea-
Speaking of Science
Editor’s note: Unless otherwise noted, S.O.S. (Speaking of Science) items in this issue are Rockefeller University and Harvard Medical School that found
kindly provided by David Coppedge. Opinions expressed herein are his own. Additional
two essential proteins that act like “molecular tailors” that can snip
commentaries and reviews of news items by David, complete with hyperlinks to cited references,
can be seen at: www.creationsafaris.com/crevnews.htm. Unless otherwise noted, emphasis is out an error and sew it back up with the correct molecules. These
added in all quotes.
proteins, FANC1 and FANCD2, repair inter-strand cross-
links, “one of the most lethal types of DNA damage.” This
Flying Fossils Found
problem “occurs when the two strands of the double
A population of insects called “living fossils” has helix are linked together, blocking replication and tran-
been located in Australia. These tiny insects, scription.” Each of your cells is likely to get 10 alarm
called ancient greenling damselflies, have no living calls a day for inter-strand crosslinks.
relatives. Their closest relatives disappeared from the What do the proteins do to fix it? They link together and join
fossil record 250 to 300 million years ago in the geological column, other members of the repair pathway. The scientists found that
according toThe Age1 andHeidelberg Leader.2 The wingspan of FANC1 and FANCD2 are intimately involved in the excision and
the insects is only 22mm and they are camouflaged, so it was insertion steps.
difficult to detect them. A scientist involved in the discovery said,
This one repair operation requires 13 protein parts. “If any
“There are a lot of unanswered questions.”
one of the 13 proteins in this pathway is damaged, the result is
A big entry in the class of impossible-to-believe claims of Fanconi anemia, a blood disorder that leads to bone marrow failure
evolution is the notion that an animal went extinct in the age of and leukemia, among other cancers, as well as many physiological
dinosaurs but still is found alive today, hundreds of millions of defects,” the article said. The original paper put it, “Our results
years later. If this were the only case it would be enough to cause show that multiple steps of the essential S-phase ICL repair mech-
serious doubts about the consensus age of the earth and Darwinian anism fail when the Fanconi anemia pathway is compromised.”
evolution, but there are many living fossils [see Creation Matters Neither the paper nor the press release said anything about how
3(2):1-3, 1998 and 12(6):10, 2007]. this tightly-integrated system might have evolved.
1. Smith, B. (2010, January 5). Found: fossil-linked, listed damselfly.The Age. 1. Knipscheer, P., M. Raschle, A. Smogorzewska, M. Enoiu, T.V. Ho, O.D.
Retrieved January 23, 2010, from www.theage.com.au/national/found- Scharer, S.J. Elledge, and J.C. Walter. 2009. The Fanconi Anemia Pathway
fossillinked-listed-damselfly-20100104-lq67.html Promotes Replication-Dependent DNA Interstrand Cross-Link Repair.Sci-
2. Poh, K. (2010, January 6). Heidelberg researchers uncover tiny treasure. ence 326:1698–1701.
Heidelberg Leader. Retrieved January 23, 2010, from http://heidelberg- 2. Rockefeller University (2010, January 3). Two proteins act as molecular tailors
leader.whereilive.com.au/news/story/our-tiny-treasure/ in DNA repair. ScienceDaily. Retrieved January 22, 2010, from
www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/12/091231154652.htm
DNA Repair Requires Teamwork
Arctic Tern Maintains World Record Title
A s if the genetic code itself were not incredible enough,
T
researchers have been finding systems that repair it. There he arctic tern makes a marathoner look like a
are numerous pathways the cell can embark on to fix DNA errors. wimp. This little bird has been confirmed as
Two key players were recently described in more detail in the the migratory bird with the longest route, flying
journal Science.1 annually from pole to pole. A team of international
scientists obtained the results by using an implanted
A damaged genetic code is worse than a book with typos.
geolocator on several birds, and tracking their actual
Broken or mismatched DNA strands can lead to serious diseases
path. The story is told byPhysOrg1 and theBBC News.2
and even death. It is essential that DNA damage be recognized
and repaired quickly. ScienceDaily2 reported results by a team at
... continued on p. 7
No. 1 January / February 2010 5
The Testimony of Succinate Dehydrogenase
...without excuse!
by Timothy R. Stout
I like succinate dehydrogenase a path to SD are in an awkward situation.
(pronounced suck SIN ate dee hi They are not yet ready to function in the
DROJ in aze). Despite its intimidating Krebs cycle, yet they have left behind their
name to a non-biochemist, it has a initial function. So, the reality is that each
wonderful message. If you are a creationist, step of the process is going to require its
you should like it, too. You see, there is no own entirely new group of cooperating en-
rational explanation for its existence apart zymes to perform some yet undefined func-
from God’s decision to design it and use it. tion. If one thinks about it, this means that
eachstep along the way requires the sudden
Succinate dehydrogenase (SD) is an
appearance of a team of new enzymes able
enzyme. It is extremely ubiquitous. Almost
to work with the intermediate and give it a
all living organisms use it, including all of
selection advantage. Then, after they are
the various kinds of plants, animals, fungi,
no longer needed as intermediate, they sud-
and aerobic bacteria. Beyond this, many
denly disappear. This process would be
anaerobic bacteria also use it. Yet, it is one
more cumbersome than simply jumping to
of the most complex enzymes in existence.
SD in a single step.
It is comprised of over 1,100 amino acids.
Whether it is being used by a bacterium, an What we know of science teaches us
apricot tree, or a man makes no difference. that there is no mechanism for an enzyme
In every place that it appears, over 1,100 such as SD to appear through natural pro-
amino acids are used to make it. cesses. It had to come from a source outside
of natural processes. Hence, succinate de-
There are 20 amino acid possibilities
hydrogenase provides one more piece of
for each of these 1,100-plus amino acids.
evidence demonstrating that physical life
In an enzyme, the choice of amino acids at
came from a living, creator God and that a
some locations is not very critical, while at
person is without excuse who will not see
others there is no freedom of choice
Succinate Dehydrogenase. it.
possible—changing only one amino acid at
Image from
a critical location can render an enzyme References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Succinate_
completely ineffective. Suppose one allows Dehydrogenase.jpg
1. Anonymous. n.d. Observable universe.Wikipedia.
2 possible choices at each of the amino acid
Retrieved February 17, 2010 from
locations of SD, a reasonable generalized their proposed step-by-step process is, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observable_universe
approximation. If one then goes through “What is required to provide such a selection 2. Anonymous. n.d. Modern evolutionary synthesis.
the calculations, the odds against getting advantage for the hundreds upon hundreds Wikipedia. Retrieved February 17, 2010 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_evolutiona
succinate dehydrogenase in a single step are of steps required?” Remember, in an evo-
ry_synthesis
approximately 101100 (see endnote). Consid- lutionary process, if any step in the sequence
ering that there are only an estimated 1080 does not have a selection advantage over Endnote: The genetic code codes for 20 possible
atoms in the known, observable universe,1 the preceding step, then natural selection amino acid choices. If a logarithmic average of
even evolutionists will acknowledge that will select away from the step, not towards 2 of these choices is viable for each location,
these odds are much, much too large for SD it. Only one disadvantageous step would then the probability of getting a viable choice
in a single step is one in 20 divided by 2,
to have appeared in a single step. be adequate to destroy an entire sequence.
which equals 10. This probability is multiplied
However, evolutionists typically claim The challenge, then, is to realize a by itself for each amino acid in the sequence,
that single-step selection is not necessary. selective advantage for each of the interme- 1,100 times. Thus, the probability of getting a
workable sequence of amino acids in a single
Forming a new enzyme only necessitates diate steps. These intermediate steps are
step capable of functioning as SD is approxi-
“small genetic changes”2 from an existing for enzymes that function neither as the mately equal to 10 multiplied by itself 1,100
enzyme already in use, provided that that original enzyme nor as SD. times, i.e., 1 x 101,100..
change has a selection advantage over its
However, enzymes typically do not
predecessor. Thus, an enzyme series could
have “stand-alone” functions. They work as
start with a sequence totally unrelated to
members of a team of enzymes, with each
that of SD, have a much smaller size than
member of the group being a specialist in
SD, and gradually be transformed into SD.
the overall task of the team. For instance,
All that is necessary is for each step in the
SD provides a step in the Krebs cycle, also
path to have a selection advantage over its
known as the citric acid cycle, which has
predecessor. The accumulated effect of
the overall function of transforming the
these small steps will be adequate to produce
energy contained in sugars and fats into a
a functional enzyme.
form that a cell can conveniently use.
The obvious question to ask regarding
The new, intermediate enzymes along
6 Creation Matters
SOS the classical sense — can provide an efficient solution to a routing
problem.”
...continued from page 5
3. Make like a leaf: Leaves are like incredibly-efficient solar
“Albatrosses, godwits, and sooty shearwaters all undertake panels, so why not imitate them? NewScientist4 reported that
epic journeys,” the BBC said, “But none can quite match the Arctic a team in China is building artificial leaves that can imitate
tern’s colossal trip.” They found that half the birds flew along photosynthesis. “Bymimicking the machinery plants use
South America on the way down, and others followed the coast of to do this, it is possible to create a miniature hydrogen
Africa, but all returned northward the same way. factory,” one of the researchers at Shanghai Jiao Tong
University said. “Using sunlight to split water molecules
The team was surprised to find the birds following an S-curve
and form hydrogen fuel is one of the most promising tactics
home when flying north. They figured that it allows the birds to
for kicking our carbon habit.”
conserve energy when flying over the trackless Atlantic Ocean by
Their new approach is closer to the plants’ technique.
riding the prevailing winds. The detour, even though thousands
They are trying to “mimic photosynthesis by copying the
of miles longer, is actually more energy efficient.
elaborate architectures of green leaves” themselves. To do
The round trip is about 70,000 kilometers (43,000 miles). An this, they are actually building on dried leaves and using them as
average arctic tern, weighing only 3.5 ounces, will fly “the equiv- templates. “The leaf retained features such as thelens-like cells
alent of three trips to the moon and back over its lifetime.” at its surface, which catch light coming from any angle, and
veins that helpguide light deeper into the leaf.” This strategy is
1. British Antarctic Survey (2010, January 11). Arctic terns confirmed to have
making the artificial structures more efficient: twice as good at
the longest animal migration in the world.PhysOrg. Retrieved January 23,
absorption and three times better at hydrogen production, the team
2010, from www.physorg.com/news182453067.html
claimed.
2. Amos, J. (2010, January 11). Arctic tern’s epic journey mapped.BBC News.
Retrieved January 23, 2010, from They realize this is just a “good beginning,” the article ended.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8451908.stm “Complex structures found in leaves should be utilised further
for enhancement in light harvesting.”
To Advance Technology, Make Like Nature 1. University of Southampton (2010, January 12). ‘Wet’ computing systems to
boost processing power.ScienceDaily. Retrieved January 23, 2010, from
S cientists and engineers continue to find the most www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100112090032.htm
2. Palmer, J. (2010, January 11). Chemical computer that mimics neurons to be
elegant solutions to practical problems by look-
created. BBC News. Retrieved January 23, 2010, from
ing at plants and animals. Here are a few of the
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8452196.stm
recent examples.
3. Marks, P. (2010, January 9). Designing highways the slime mould way.
NewScientist. Retrieved January 23, 2010, from
1. Wet computing: Cells and brains do a superior
www.newscientist.com/article/mg20527426.300-designing-highways-the-
job of complex processing, so why are our current
slime-mould-way.html
computers singing how dry I am? Not for much longer.
4. Inman, M. (2010, January 10). Artificial leaf could make green hydrogen.
ScienceDaily1 reported that “A new kind of information process-
NewScientist. Retrieved January 23, 2010, from
ing technologyinspired by chemical processes in living systems www.newscientist.com/article/mg20527426.700-artificial-leaf-could-make-
is being developed by researchers at the University of Southamp- green-hydrogen.html
ton.” What they have so far is “very crude” but they are working
toward developing a “liquid brain” just like our brains. Dr.
Tiktaalik Demoted to Has-
Klaus-Peter Zauner at the University's School of Electronics and
Been
Computer Science said, “People realise now thatthe best infor-
mation processes we have are in our heads and as we are T
he highly-publicized tetrapod
increasingly finding that silicon has its limitations in terms of
missing link or “fish-a-pod” that
information processing, we need to explore other approaches,
made headlines in 2006 has been de-
which is exactly what we are doing here.” Makes you wonder
throned by new findings in Poland.
why IBM didn’t follow that inspiration early on. Think of the
Trackways said to be 18 million years
other benefits: “Our system will copy some key features of
older than Tiktaalik, showing digits and alternating steps, were
neuronal pathways in the brain and will be capable of excitation,
announced today in Nature.1 The authors said, “They force a
self-repair and self-assembly,” said fellow researcher Dr. Maurits
radical reassessment of the timing, ecology and environmental
de Planque.
TheBBC News2 also reported on this story. Dr. Zauner told setting of thefish-tetrapod transition, as well as thecompleteness
them, “Every neuron is like a molecular computer; ours is a of the body fossil record.”
very crude abstraction of what neurons do.” The planned Here is a sample of the revolutionary talk being reported:
chemical computers will also have another characteristically hu-
• “These resultsforce us to reconsider our whole picture
man trait: lipids, or fat.
of the transition from fish to land animals” said co-dis-
2. Slime mold highways: What would a slimy mold coverer Per Ahlberg inScienceDaily.2
have to teach humans? NewScientist3 reported
• The finding “could lead to significant shifts in our
two specialists in “unconventional computing”
knowledge of the timing and ecological setting of early
believe they can provide alternative methods
tetrapod evolution.” — Ted Daeschler in National Geo-
for road planning. After watching a slime mold
graphic News.3
in a petri dish find the best path to nutrients on a map of England,
comprised of oat flakes, Jeff Jones of the University of the West • “The team says the find means that land vertebrates
of England in Bristol said, “This shows how a single-celled appeared millions of years earlier than previously sup-
creature without any nervous system — and thus intelligence in posed.... the Zachelmie Quarry tetrapods break the neat
No. 1 January / February 2010 7
and simple timeline.” (BBC News4). 7. Bryner, J. (2010, January 6). Four-legged creature’s footprints force evolution
rethink. LiveScience. Retrieved January 22, 2010, from
• “The fish-tetrapodtransition was thus seemingly quite www.livescience.com/animals/100106-tetrapod-footprints.html
well documented.... Now, however, Niedzwiedzkiet allob 8. Gouramanis, C., J.A. Webb, and A.A. Warren. 2003. Fluviodeltaic sedimentol-
a grenade into that picture.” — Janvier and Clement, ogy and ichnology of part of the Silurian Grampians Group, western Victo-
commenting on the find inNature.5 ria.Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 50:811–825.
• “Itblows the whole story out of the water, so to speak.”
Molecular Machines Use Moving Parts
— Jenny Clack (Harvard), inPhysOrg.6
R
• “We didn’t know they existed at this point, and we esearch papers into the processes of molecular machines
would not have expected to have found them in this envi- continue to reveal moving parts: “fingers” that open and
ronment.” — Per Ahlberg, co-discoverer, inLive Science.7 close, ratchets that lock into place, and feet that move along tracks.
Here are a few samples from the voluminous literature that con-
No body fossils were found. This means that inferences about
tinues to pour from biophysics labs.
the trackmakers will be limited. Readers should therefore take
caution at the artist reconstructions in some articles, such as 1. DNA Polymerase I: Scientific papers tend to be reserved in their
National Geographic, that try to give the animals a fish-like language, but the authors of a paper in Structure1 couldn’t help
appearance. PhysOrg noted, “Although she acknowledged their themselves: “DNA polymerases are spectacular molecular ma-
chines that canaccurately copy genetic material witherror rates
importance, Clack warned against drawing conclusions exclusively
on the order of 1 in 105 bases incorporated, not including the
on small marks left by animals on the bottom of a muddy surface
contributions of proofreading exonucleases.” Their paper went
hundreds of millions of years ago [mya].” The tracks are dated
into detail on how the “fingers” and “thumb” of the machine open
397 mya, whereas Tiktaalik was dated around 380 mya. The
and close in precise sequence as the machine moves along the DNA
scientists inferred that the trackmakers were sizeable — about 2 strand base by base. Part of the machine rotates 50° as the machine
meters long. Since no tail drag prints are seen, the animals must translocates along the DNA. These machines copy millions of base
have had limbs strong enough to hold their bodies above ground pairs of DNA every cell division so that each daughter cell gets an
(see illustrations in theBBC News). accurate copy. The research was done on a bacterium that lives in
hot springs.
Another bombshell is that this may not be the only grenade
Pata and Jaeger, who reviewed the paper by Golosov et al in
to be lobbed into the picture. The discoverers noted with interest Structure,2 included a diagram showing the “conformational changes”
that trackways from Glenisla dated late Silurian (418–422 mya), that DNA polymerase I undergoes in its action along the DNA strand.
thought to be those of arthropods, may actually be vertebrate “After more than fifty years of research, the DNA polymerases
tetrapod tracks as well.8 And the new Polish trackways open the responsible for copying the genetic material are some of the most
door to more finds like it. “Obviously the hunt is on,” Ahlberg well characterized enzymes in all of biology,” they said. “Although
the polymerases are divided into several different families, they all
said, for more trackways and body fossils from that period and the
share a common two metal-ion catalytic mechanism, and most of
locale’s presumed intertidal environment. Janvier and Clement
them are described ashaving fingers, palm, and thumb domains:
said,
the palm contains metal-binding catalytic residues, the thumb contacts
Niedzwiedzki and colleagues’ apparentlyanachronistic Eif- DNA duplex, and the fingers form one side of the pocket surrounding
elian [397–391 mya] tetrapod trackways will thus shake the nascent base pair.” Three phases occur during each step along
up thinking about tetrapod origins. They show that the the DNA chain: the fingers open, the machine moves one base pair
as it rotates, then the base in the “palm” is placed into the “pre-
first tetrapods thrived in the sea, trampling the mud of
insertion site,” while another moving part prevents further movement
coral-reef lagoons; this is at odds with the long-held view
till the operation is completed. Then the process repeats — millions
that river deltas and lakes were the necessary environments
of times per operation.
for the transition from water to land during vertebrate
A paper in PNAS3 on DNA Polymerase I noted that “The
evolution. And in guiding the search for a gradual timing
remarkable fidelity of most DNA polymerases depends ona series
of the fin-limb transition during the Middle Devonian, they
of early steps in the reaction pathway whichallow the selection of
are likely to trigger a burst of field investigations into
the correct nucleotide substrate, while excluding all incorrect
potential tetrapodomorph fish sites of Emsian [497–397 mya]
ones, before the enzyme is committed to the chemical step of
or earlier age. nucleotide incorporation.” Their paper also discussed numerous
1. Niedzwiedzki, G., P. Szrek, K. Narkiewicz, M. Narkiewicz, and P.E. Ahlberg. conformational changes in the operation — some that precede the
2010. Tetrapod trackways from the early Middle Devonian period of Po- emplacement of the nucleotide at each step. They described how
land.Nature 463:43–48. the fingers-closing step forms “a snug binding pocket around the
2. Uppsala University (2010, January 8). Fossil footprints give land vertebrates a nascent base pair.” They discussed at length how the machine
much longer history. ScienceDaily. Retrieved January 22, 2010, from prevents mismatched bases at several stages of the operation. None
www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100107114420.htm of the authors of these three papers used the wordevolution.
3. Roach, J. (2010, January 6). Oldest land-walker tracks found — pushes back
2. Virus replicator: Language of moving parts abounds in an article in
evolution.National Geographic Daily News. Retrieved January 22, 2010,
from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/01/100106-tetrapod- PNAS about the machinery a virus uses to replicate itself.4 This little
tracks-oldest-footprints-nature-evolution-walking-land.html helicase called NS3h undergoes three successive conformational
4. Amos, J. (2010, January 6). Fossil tracks record ‘oldest land-walkers.’ BBC changes as it ratchets along the DNA. Words found in the paper
News. Retrieved January 22, 2010, from suggesting moving parts include: stretched spring, torsion, rotation,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8443879.stm bending, propel, motion, unwinding, gating, cycle, kinetic steps,
5. Janvier, P. and G. Clement. 2010. Palaeontology: Muddy tetrapod origins.Na- motor domains, structural transitions, and ratchet-type unidirectional
ture 463:40–41. translocation. This particular machine works in a virus that causes
6. Uppsala University (2010, January 6). Fossil footprints give land vertebrates a hepatitus C. It is part of superfamily SF2 of this kind of machine.
much longer history. PhysOrg. Retrieved January 22, 2010, from Regarding evolution, the authors only said, “structural comparison
www.physorg.com/news182005810.html of the representative SF1 and SF2 members reveals explicit differ-
8 Creation Matters
ences in catalyzing nucleotide hydrolysis and motion (Figs. S6 and with respect to another domain of the factory. This is not simple.
S7), reflectingthe fact that these helicases have evolved to adopt “Subunit ratcheting is a complex set of motions that entails the
divergent mechanisms and act in different biological processes.” remodeling of numerous bridging contacts found at the subunit
interface that are involved in substrate positioning,” they said.
3. Torsion springs and lever arms: There’s a molecular machine that
detects stretching force when a load is applied. The keywords for a Since the discovery of molecular machines, biochemistry has
paper inPNAS5 about one of the myosins include kinetics, torsional transformed into biophysics. The kind of chemistry we learned in
motions, lever arm, force-sensitive transition, and more. “Myosin-Is school is inadequate for understanding the machinery of the cell.
are molecular motors that link cellular membranes to the actin
Interactions between molecules are not simply matters of matching
cytoskeleton, where they play roles inmechano-signal transduction
electrons with protons. Instead, large structural molecules form
and membrane trafficking,” the paper begins. “Some myosin-Is are
machines with moving parts. These parts experience the same
proposed to act as force sensors, dynamically modulating their
kinds of forces and motions that we experience at the macro level:
motile properties inresponse to changes in tension.” Why do cells
need force sensors? “Tension sensing by myosin motors isimportant stretching, bending, leverage, spring tension, ratcheting, rotation
for numerous cellular processes, including control of force and and translocation. The same units of force and energy are appro-
energy utilization in contracting muscles, transport of cellular priate for both — except at vastly different levels.
cargos, detection of auditory stimuli, and control of cell shape.” The
1. Golosov, A.A., J.J. Warren, L.S. Beese, and M. Karplus. 2010. The Mecha-
authors found thatalternative splicing of the gene produces isoforms
nism of the Translocation Step in DNA Replication by DNA Polymerase I:
of the motor with lever arms of different lengths, with varying
A Computer Simulation Analysis.Structure 18:83-93. Retrieved January
response to force. This “increases the range of force sensitivities 23, 2010, from www.cell.com/structure/fulltext/S0969-
of the proteins translated from the myo1b gene.” and it “tunes 2126%2809%2900460-2
the mechanical properties of myo1bfor diverse mechanical chal- 2. Pata, J.D. and J. Jaeger. 2010. Molecular Machines and Targeted Molecular
lenges, while maintaining the protein’s basal kinetic and cargo- Dynamics: DNA in Motion. Structure 18:4–6.
binding properties.” 3. Santoso, Y., C.M. Joyce, O. Potapova, L. Le Reste, J. Hohlbein, J.P. Torella,
How did these myosin machines arise? They just evolved. N.D.F. Grindley, and A.N. Kapanidis. 2010. Conformational transitions in
“Myosins have evolved different tension sensitivities tuned for DNA polymerase I revealed by single-molecule FRET.Proceedings of the
these diverse cellular tasks,” the authors said. That’s all they had National Academy of Science107:715–720.
to say about evolution. 4. Gu, M. and C.M. Rice. 2010. Three conformational snapshots of the hepatitis
C virus NS3 helicase reveal a ratchet translocation mechanism.Proceedings
4. Ribosome dynamics: When transfer-RNAs and messenger-RNAs of the National Academy of Sciences 107:521–528.
traverse the ribosome protein-assembly factory with their amino-acid 5. Laakso, J.M., J.H. Lewis, H. Shuman, and E.M. Ostap. 2010. Control of myo-
cargos and genetic data readouts, respectively, they undergo several sin-I force sensing by alternative splicing. Proceedings of the National
motions as they are transported along. Researchers writing inPNAS Academy of Sciences 107:698–702.
said,6 “Spontaneous formation of the unlocked state of the ribosome 6. Munro, J.B., R.B. Altman, C.S. Tung, J.H.D. Cate, K.Y. Sanbonmatsu, and
is amultistep process.” Their paper described how the L1 stalks of S.C. Blanchard. 2010. Spontaneous formation of the unlocked state of the
the ribosome bend, rotate and uncouple — undergoing at least four ribosome is a multistep process.Proceedings of the National Academy of
distinct stalk positions while each tRNA ratchets through the assembly Sciences 107:709–714.
tunnel. At one stage, for instance, “the L1 stalk domain closes and
the 30S subunit undergoes a counterclockwise, ratchet-like rotation”
Math Matters
by
π
Don DeYoung, Ph.D.
What Are Irrational Numbers? fractions give a close approximation suppressed since they were consid-
to π. The vertical lines show where ered to be inferior to whole numbers.
I
rrational numbers cannot be written as
the following values differ from π: There is a legend that the mathema-
a simple fraction of two other numbers.
tician Hippasus was banished from
For example, 7/11 is rational but π (pi) 2222
==33..1144228855771144 the Pythagorean community for dis-
is not. An equivalent definition is that irra-
77 closing to outsiders the existence of
tional numbers have an endless string of
such numbers. A tomb was erected for him
decimals with no repeating or recurrent
335555 as though he were dead (Eves, 1980, p. 53).
pattern. The fraction 7/11 equals ==33..1144115599229922
0.636363…, but π is non-repeating 111133 Today, irrational numbers are a rich
(3.1415926535...). area of interest and application. Entire books
The discovery of irrational numbers are written on the intriguing properties of
There have been many unsuccessful such as π was disturbing to Greek mathe- π. Mathematics is the language of creation,
attempts to find a large fraction which ex- maticians. Pythagorean philosophy taught including the irrational numbers.
actly equals π, therefore showing thatπ this that nature consisted of whole numbers
constant is a rational number. How- only, in direct conflict with irratio- Reference
ever, computers have evaluated π to nals. Initially there were efforts to Eves, Howard. 1980.Great Moments in Mathematics
a trillion places with no repetition of hide the “logical scandal” of irratio- (Before 1650).Mathematical Association of
the decimal pattern. This expression nal numbers from public knowledge. America, Washington, D.C.
of π, at 2000 characters per page, Irrationals represented some cosmic
would fill 500 million pages. Several imperfection or error that should be
No. 1 January / February 2010 9
Matters of Fact...
by Danny Faulkner, Ph.D.
Editor’s note: Dr. Danny Faulkner serves as guest Without rejecting Newtonian gravity,
respondent to this issue’s featured question. You may there were only two ways out of this dilemma.
submit your question to Dr. Jean Lightner at
Either the universe was not eternal (which is
[email protected]. It will not be possible to
what the Bible teaches), or the universe was
provide an answer for each question, but she will
choose those which have a broad appeal and lend infinite. In an infinite universe, there is no
themselves to relatively short answers. center about which matter could fall, so one
is left with a static universe. Sadly, instead
Q Once, long ago, I saw in Astronomy
of taking Genesis 1:1 at its word, most people
magazine an interesting article titled
assumed that the universe was infinite. Thus,
“Why is the Night Sky Black?” It was
Olbers’ Paradox remained a mystery for more
interesting and if I remember correctly it pos-
than a century.
ited that an infinite universe would have a
bright sky since at any point there would be Modern physics gave us a new theory of
a star sooner or later at some distance. I have gravity, general relativity. One of the differ-
often been intrigued with the idea and won- ences between Newtonian gravity and general
dered if it could be interesting from a creation- relativity is that even with an eternal universe,
ary point of view. Olbers’ Paradox. general relativity will cause all matter to
Permission granted under the terms of the collapse. That is, there is no static universe,
A This normally is named “Olbers’ Para- GNU Free Documentation License.
for we would expect that the universe is either
dox” after Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eye-stars.svg
expanding or contracting. This led to the
Olbers (1758–1840). Olbers wrote about
discovery of the expansion of the universe by
this as early as 1823, but there were others size and brightness (and correspondingly,
Edwin Hubble in 1928.
prior to him who discussed the issue as well. temperature). However, with a large enough
There are four assumptions required for Ol- sample size, this assumption is not a bad This discovery eventually paved the way
bers’ Paradox. They are: approximation. The relatively rare, bright for the big bang cosmogony, though the big
1. Stars have some average size stars are balanced out by the very numerous bang is not the only possibility within a gen-
and brightness. but faint stars. This is borne out by the surface eral relativity theory. The big bang cosmog-
brightness of galaxies. Relatively nearby ony posits that the universe began in an instant
2. Stars are uniformly distributed galaxies, such as the Andromeda galaxy, over- in the past, currently thought to be 13.71
throughout the universe. all are bright, but they can be amazingly billion years ago. The consequence is that
3. The universe is eternal. disappointing when seen through even large the universe has not been around for an eter-
telescopes, because the surface brightness of nity, and so there has not been sufficient time
4. The universe is infinite. nearby galaxies is no greater than very distant for light from all corners of the universe to
We can work through these assumptions. galaxies. have reached the earth. Therefore, our view
The apparent brightness of a star diminishes is not mostly blocked by stellar surfaces in
This brings us to the second assumption,
with the inverse square of the distance. This every direction, and Olbers’ Paradox is not a
that stars are uniformly distributed in space.
is due to the fact that the angular size of a star problem.
Stars tend to clump together into structures
(how much of the sky that appears to be taken that we call galaxies, so locally stars are not This is how evolutionary astronomers
up by a star) decreases with the inverse square uniformly distributed at all. However, over explain Olbers’ Paradox, that the assumption
of the distance. If stars are uniformly distrib- large distances (that large sample size again), that the universe is eternal is not correct. How
uted throughout the universe, then with in- the galaxies, and hence the stars that they do recent creationists explain Olbers’ Para-
creasing distance the number of stars increases contain, tend to smooth out. So the first two dox? Amazingly, in a very similar way. Of
with the square of the distance. These two assumptions, though incorrect, do not have a course, we don’t believe that the universe is
effects cancel, so that wherever we look, our large bearing upon the outcome. The real billions of years old. However, neither do we
view is blocked by an increasing amount of outcome comes from the final assumptions, believe that the universe is eternal. And, like
stellar surfaces with ever increasing distance. that the universe is eternal and infinite. evolutionary astronomers, we don’t know if
If the universe is eternal, then light from the universe is infinite, but that is irrelevant
The eternality of the universe goes back
stars has been traveling toward us in every if the universe is not eternal. Regardless of
at least to the ancient Greeks, who could not
direction forever. If the universe is infinite, which mechanism one uses to explain the light
envision a naturalistic beginning of the uni-
then the number of stars also is infinite. Thus, travel time problem (how light from all por-
verse. The Greek gods were not transcendent,
in every direction that we look, our view is tions of the universe could have gotten here
nor were they capable of fiat creation. This
totally blocked by stellar surfaces. Therefore, if the universe is young), our view of the night
left the ancient Greeks with the only other
if the sun’s temperature is the approximate sky is not entirely blocked by stellar surfaces
possibility: that the universe was eternal. Once
stellar temperature, then the entire night sky no matter which direction we look.
Sir Isaac Newton devised his law of universal
ought to be as bright as the sun’s surface. The gravity, people realized that if the universe For more discussion of Olbers’ Paradox
night sky is profoundly dark, so this is a huge were eternal, all the matter in the universe and much more about cosmology, see my
discrepancy. would end up in a large heap at the center of book,Universe by Design, available from the
These four assumptions were widely be- the universe. With an eternal universe, there Creation Research Society.
lieved at the time of Olbers, but not so today. would have been more than ample time for
Let us examine the assumptions. We now this to already have happened, but it obviously
know that there is a tremendous range in stellar had not happened.
10 Creation Matters