Creation Matters Vol. 13 No. 3 May/June 2008

2008·0.42 MB·English

by  Creation Research Society

Volume 13, Number 3 May / June 2008
— A publication of the Creation Research Society —
The Limits of Prigogine’s Idea of Why Intelligent Design
Natural Self-Organization Leads to Theism
by Timothy R. Stout by Jerry Bergman, Ph.D.
F ew controversies have created the
O ver the years, I have considered the
level of uproar in recent years as
issue of entropy to provide one of the
has Intelligent Design (ID). One
strongest arguments against evolu-
result of the ID movement was the
tion, both as it relates to chemical
court ruling against teaching ID in pub-
evolution (the origin of life) and to macro-
lic schools in the recent Dover, PA,
evolution (turning an amoeba into a man).
Intelligent Design court case (Kitzmiller
It seems obvious that random changes to
v. Dover (400 F. Supp. 2d 707 [M.D.
organized systems tend to destroy existing
Pa. 2005])), The reason for Judge Jones’
order. A two-year-old child left to himself
ruling can be summed up as follows:
in a toy store will quickly turn it into a
Critical analysis of evolutionism leads
shambles. Multiple, random, blindfolded
to intelligent design, which leads to the
paint strokes on a Rembrandt painting will Credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA)/Department of Commerce and intelligent Creator requirement.
invariably destroy the quality of the painting,
OAR/ERL/National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL)
not improve upon it. The Creator requirement leads to
theism, and the courts have consistently
Yet, recently I have talked to a number
resulting, accumulated level of organization ruled that the state cannot hinder or aid
of students on various university campuses
continually increases. religion — and that since teaching ID
who have taken issue with me, claiming that
aids religion, it cannot be taught in
science has demonstrated that, in truth, na- Prigogine sees no limits to the degree
state-supported schools. Of the many
ture tends to organize itself. To them, spon- of self-organization that this process can
recent examples I know of people who
taneous self-organization, not decay, is the create. In effect, a dissipative structure is
rejected atheism and became theists
normal order of things. Evolution is the not constrained by entropy. For evolution-
because of ID, I will cite two.
natural outworking of this principle. Their ists this process represents a convenient way
hero is Ilya Prigogine. around the problem of entropy. Further- Professor Antony Flew
more, once they have bought into
A prize-winning idea? Antony Flew, Professor Emeritus at
Prigogine’s methodology, they become in-
Reading University, was a leading 20th-
Ilya Prigogine received the Nobel Prize in oculated against traditional creationist argu-
century intellectual and author of many
Chemistry in 1977 for his work in the ther- ments based on entropy. To them, anyone
books including the highly respected
modynamics of systems significantly out of who does not appear to understand why they
texts The Case for God Challenged
equilibrium. He claims that these systems believe nature spontaneously organizes itself
(1993) andAtheistic Humanism (1993).
tend to spontaneously organize themselves is ignorant and not worth listening to.
He also has published many major phi-
into what he calls “dissipative structures.”
The Nobel committee, in its press re- losophy texts, such asWestern Philoso-
A dissipative structure is a self-organized,
lease announcing Prigogine’s award, specif- phy; Ideas and Argument from Plato to
metastable structure. By definition a meta-
ically stated, Sartre (Flew, 1971).
stable structure is temporary in nature. It
only has a limited probability of existence, The formation of ordered, dissipative Although as a youth Flew was a
not a certainty.1 systems demonstrates, however, that Christian, during his teens he rejected
it is possible to create order from Christianity due to his study of Darwin-
Prigogine’s thesis is that in a system far disorder. The description of these
ism. He concluded that evolution could
from equilibrium, dissipative structures structures have [sic] led to many
fully account for the creation of all life
spontaneously form, representing initial de- fundamental discoveries and
and that there was no need for a Creator
grees of self-organization. However, if the applications in diverse fields of
who had been displaced from his role
system continues out of equilibrium, a cur- human endeavour, not only in
as creator by science. Flew eventually
rent dissipative structure becomes the start- chemistry. In the last few years
became a leading defender of atheism,
ing point for a second, more organized one. applications in biology have been
Each stage of this process is termed a ... continued on p. 2
... continued on p. 3
“bifurcation.”2 As this process repeats, the
2007, p. 95) Johnson’s book both defends ID and re-
Design Leads to Theism
views his own spiritual journey beginning
...continued from page 1 …design that is apparent in nature
from his childhood religious beliefs to his
suggests the existence of a cosmic
a role he held for over half a century. His acceptance of skepticism and then back to
Designer. I have often stressed that
paper “Theology and Falsification,” (Flew, belief. He discusses in detail why, as a
this is actually an argumentto design
1968) first presented at Oxford University from order, as such arguments pro- scientist, ID was critical in his journey from
in 1950, became the most widely reprinted ceed from the perceived order in agnosticism to belief.
academic philosophical paper in the last five nature to show evidence of design
Johnson graduated as his high school
decades. and, thus, a Designer. Although I
valedictorian and, after two years of college,
was once sharply critical of the ar-
Dr. Flew kept reading and thinking decided to become a minister. His theology
gument to design, I have since come
about this topic, though, and eventually studies at the University of Chicago, instead
to see that, when correctly formulat-
returned to the theism of his youth. He of deepening his faith, caused him to lose
ed, this argument constitutes a per-
relates that his conversion was primarily it. In his words, “under the challenge of
suasive case for the existence of God.
due to his study of ID, especially the books some very bright and skeptical teachers at
Developments in two areas in partic-
by such writers as Michael Behe and Wil- the University of Chicago,” he began to
ular have led me to this conclusion.
liam Dembski (Veith, 2004). His views are The first is the question of the origin “doubt most everything” he had learned as
similar to those of the American Intelligent of the laws of nature and the related a child about God (2004, p. 18). This in-
Design theorists who see evidence for a insights of eminent modern scien- cluded the belief that the Bible was God’s
guiding force in the Universe’s construction. tists. The second is the question of Word, that Jesus was God’s son, and that
Flew adds that DNA and cell biology re- the origin of life and reproduction. God rules the universe. No longer a believer,
search has provided us with an enormously he graduated and was ordained, but he felt
This argument not only convinced the long-
powerful argument for design, and argu- his doubts about God precluded entering the
time atheist Antony Flew to become a theist,
ments from design convincingly argue that ministry. Rather, he elected to study med-
but many other persons as well, including
there is a God (Flew and Varghese, 2007, icine, partly due to his seminary field place-
Dr. Timothy Johnson.
p. 95). Flew stresses that the main reason ments in hospitals.
for “believing in a First Cause God is the Dr. Timothy Johnson
He came to believe in God only after
impossibility of providing a naturalistic ex-
The second example is Harvard Medical many years of examining in detail the major
planation of the origin of the first living
School professor Dr. Timothy Johnson. Dr. questions that trouble many persons today.
reproducing organisms.” (Wikipedia, 2008)
Johnson is best known both as an ABC He began by questioning the evolutionary
He states that his whole life has been guided
news-medical correspondent and for his belief that the universe is a product of only
by the Socratic principle “follow the argu-
many excellent documentaries. His new time, natural law, and chance. After exten-
ment wherever it leads” and, in this case, it
book on ID titledFinding God in the Ques- sively studying the scientific research, es-
led him to theism (Flew and Varghese, 2007,
tions was a New York Times best seller. It pecially that done by ID scientists, Johnson
p. 22). He concludes that the most popular
was endorsed by several of his Harvard concluded that our inner and outer universes
and intuitively plausible argument for God’s
colleagues, including the dean of Harvard are not only far too vast and complex to be
existence is the argument from design,
Medical School, Dr. Joseph Martin. the result of mutations and blind natural
which teaches that the (Flew and Varghese,
forces, but are constructed so as to force the
conclusion that they were created by an
intelligent designer (2004, pp. 46–53). John-
son concluded that the footprints of this
creator are found everywhere in the uni-
Contents
Creation Matters
The Limits of Prigogine’s Idea of Natural Self-
Organization.................................................................1 ISSN 1094-6632
Volume 13, Number 3
Why Intelligent Design Leads to Theism.......................1
May / June 2008
Letters:
Copyright © 2008 Creation Research Society
The Pre-Flood/Flood Boundary in the Grand Canyon:
Clarification of a Barnhart Reference......................................6 All rights reserved.
Speaking of Science General Editor: Glen W. Wolfrom
Few Typos Get Past Your Spell Checker.....................................7
Alien Messages via Neutrinos......................................................7 For membership / subscription information,
Preparing the World for Aliens.....................................................7 advertising rates,
Noah’s Ark Gets Balanced Treatment..........................................8 and information for authors:
Noah’s Ark Goes Dutch................................................................8
Glen W. Wolfrom, Editor
Canyon Formation: Another Catastrophic Rethink.......................8
P.O. Box 8263
Vestigial Organs Have a Function: to Smear Creationism...........9
St. Joseph, MO 64508-8263
Hobbit Prophecy: Somebody Will Take a Big Fall........................9
All by Design: Angling for Sight...................................10 Email: [email protected]
Phone/fax: [phone]
Creation Research Society Website:
www.creationresearch.org
Articles published inCreation Matters represent the
opinions and beliefs of the authors, and do not necessarily
reflect the official position of the CRS.
2 Creation Matters
verse, from the human conscience to our both Antony Flew and Timothy Johnson Flew, A. 1993. Atheistic Humanism. Buffalo, N.Y.
Prometheus Books.
basic need to form the complex social rela- have acknowledged in their writings. Flew
Flew, A. and R.A. Varghese. 2007.There Is a God:
tionships that shape our lives. even stated that he now believes that, al-
How the World’s Most Notorious Atheist
Johnson cites the major ID literature, though he is not a Christian, the “Christian Changed His Mind. San Francisco, CA: Harper-
religion is the one religion that most clearly One.
which he highly recommends, as important
deserves to be honored,” and he is open to Johnson, T. 2004.Finding God in the Questions: A
in his conversion from atheism to belief
exploring its truth (2007, p. 185). Personal Journey. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-
(2004, pp. 45, 214). His journey parallels Varsity Press.
that of many persons today, and it illustrates References Sharp, D. and J. Bergman. 2008.Persuaded by the
an important reason why ID has been a Evidence. Green Forest, AR: Master Books.
Anonymous. 2008. Anthony Flew.Wikipedia (25
major means for many people to convert Veith, G.E. 2004. Flew the coop.”WorldMagazine,
May).
25 Dec., p. 22.
from atheism to theism, and why courts rule http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony_Flew
its teaching is religious advocacy. Flew, A. 1968. Theology and falsification
(University, 1950-51); from J. Feinberg, ed.,
The above stories are only two of hun-
Reason and Responsibility: Readings in Some
dreds of case histories involving conversion Basic Problems of Philosophy, Belmont, CA:
from atheism to theism due to ID. Some of Dickenson Publishing Company, Inc., pp. 48-
these are discussed in a book titledPersuad- 49. (available at
www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/flew_falsification
ed by the Evidence, published by Master
.html)
Books (Sharp and Bergman, 2008). ID is
Flew, A. 1971.Western Philosophy; Ideas and Argu-
not biblical creationism, but for many it is ment from Plato to Sartre. Indianapolis: Bobbs-
an important step in that direction. Once one Merrill.
accepts the reality of a creator, the door to Flew, A. 1993.The Case for God Challenged. Buffa-
accepting Christianity has been opened, as lo, N.Y. : Prometheus Books.
phony orchestra, complete with violins, defined by a critical distance; and
Limitations
trumpets, and tympani. Prigogine’s failure (2) catalytic steps, such as the pro-
...continued from page 1 to deal with the natural limitations on reso- duction of the intermediate com-
nant self-organization leads to numerous pound Y from the compound X
dominating but the theory of fatal flaws in his work. together with the production of X
dissipative structures has also been from Y.
used to describe phenomena in Prigogine mentions a vortex6 as one It is interesting to note that these
social-systems.3 form of self-organization. An example of conditions are satisfied in all living
a vortex would be a tornado in a thunder- systems: Nucleotides code for pro-
In other words, the Nobel committee was
storm. When a relatively stable mass of teins, which in turn code for
impressed not only by the implications of
dry, cold air moves over a relatively stable nucleotides.7
Prigogine’s work for chemical thermo-
mass of humid, warm air, a severe thunder-
dynamics, but also its carryover into biology Prigogine sees no limitations or restric-
storm can develop, complete with a tornado.
(i.e., evolution) and even into accounting tions to the level of organization that dissi-
The thunderstorm represents a localized
for the interaction of people in human pative structures are capable of forming.
higher degree of organization than present
society. For starters, he claims that dissipative struc-
in either of the air masses alone.
tures provide an adequate means for a nat-
Since this line of reasoning appears to be
However, it is also very important to ural formation of life: “We now begin to
contrary to everything I had learned about
recognize that the self-organization appear- understand the dynamical roots of organiza-
thermodynamics, I decided to read one of
ing in a thunderstorm is actually extremely tion, the dynamics at the root of complexity
Prigogine’s later books, “The End of
limited in its possible scope and is only that are essential for self-organization and
Certainty.”4
temporary in duration. It follows a very the emergence of life.”8
Flutes and tornadoes predictable cycle. In fact, the development
However, this is not enough. He lets
cycle of a thunderstorm is so predictable
Prigogine’s thesis is that when one has a his imagination run wild. He also talks
that weathermen can make reasonable fore-
large ensemble or collection of particles about how“these concepts are now applied
casts of the timing and severity of its devel-
which interact with each other and which to a wide group of problems in biology,
opment, from its initial appearance to its
are out of equilibrium, resonant behavior sociology, and economics…”9 Finally, he
final disappearance. Although every thun-
can develop between the particles as they summarizes, “We see that human creativity
derstorm is unique, it is unique within very
interact. In turn, resonance can lead to and innovation can be understood as the
narrow limits of possible alternatives.
self-organization. His entire concept of self- amplification of laws of nature already pres-
organization is based on resonance.5 According to Prigogine, self-organiza- ent in physics or chemistry.”10
tion results when two conditions are met:
However, common sense tells us that Experimental support?
there are obvious limits to the self-organiz- Thermodynamics leads us to the for-
These are rather extreme claims for the
mulation of two conditions for the
ing capabilities of resonance. No matter
occurrence of dissipative structures ultimate capabilities of self-organization.
how skillful a flute player might be, he will
in chemistry: A natural question arises: how much of this
never make a flute sound like a full sym-
(1) far from equilibrium situations is justified by experimental observation?
No. 3 May / June 2008 3
The students I talked with on the various mary experimental evidence offered by acids. However, if the facts are looked at
campuses always presented the claims of Prigogine in his book. And, it seems readily honestly, there are many natural roadblocks
self-organization as being well confirmed apparent that the limited degree of organi- against the existence of any such soup in
experimentally. In the light of the scope of zation possible in thunderstorm develop- real life.18 Without the raw materials, there
Prigogine’s claims and the comments of the ment is not even close to what it would take would be nothing to self-organize and the
students, the evidence Prigogine presented to organize the first cell, let alone everything discussion is meaningless.
in his book was unexpectedly meager. He else Prigogine claimed for it. Is it possible
2. Contradicts central dogma. There
primarily talks about oscillating chemical Prigogine might be overstating his case?
is a fundamental flaw in Prigogine’s state-
reactions, such as one called the Belousov-
Most scientists were at first very reluc- ment we quoted earlier: “Nucleotides code
Zhabotinski reaction. He says, “I remember
tant to accept Prigogine’s work.16 They for proteins, which in turn code for
our amazement when we saw the reacting
wanted to use traditional, equilibrium-based nucleotides.”19 This statement contradicts
solution become blue, and then red, and then
concepts to explain behavior away from the central dogma of biochemistry, which
blue again. Today, many other oscillatory
equilibrium; they were not open to was formulated by Francis Crick in 1958:
reactions are known.”11
Prigogine’s ideas. In response, Prigogine “DNA makes RNA makes enzymes.” No-
Prigogine conveniently did not mention stated, quoting a friend of his, “No physical tice, proteinsdo not code for either RNA or
that in real life these kinds of oscillations concept is sufficiently defined without the DNA. Prigogine’s justification for extrap-
are also only a temporary feature.12,13, That knowledge of its domain of validity.”17 In olating dissipative structures to apply to
is it! From a test tube mixture that tempo- other words, you do not really understand living systems is based on a false premise.
rarily turns from blue to red and then back a concept until you understand the limits for Indeed, it is the inability of protein to code
to blue again, Prigogine has developed an which it is valid. for nucleotide sequences that have caused
entire scheme supposedly capable of over- many biologists to propose an RNA world
This dialogue intrigued me. Specifical-
coming the laws of entropy. The observed as a stage in a materialistic origin of life.
ly, I was intrigued by the contradiction
principle of self-organization is presented
between Prigogine’s standards for the work In physics, an oscillation can be over-
as capable of forming life, man, man’s social
of other scientists versus his own. When damped or under-damped. Resonance oc-
interactions — even accounting for
curs only in under-damped situa-
man’s innate creativity!
tions. In an over-damped situation,
He cannot demonstrate in a
He mentions in passing, inThe the losses during interactions are
End of Certainty, that “There is still laboratory a level of self- so great that resonance cannot
a gap between the most complex occur. I believe that the problems
structures we can produce in none- organization in dissipative presented by the central dogma to
quilibrium situations in chemistry any kind of “resonance” between
structures which comes
and the complexity we find in nucleotide sequences and protein
biology.”14 Yes, this is true. And, anywhere close to the sequences effectively produce the
so far, no athlete has been able to equivalent of an over-damped sit-
complexity we see in biology.
jump over the Empire State Build- uation. There is not enough free-
ing. It would be nice if Prigogine dom of interaction between the
had discussed the immense size of nucleotides and protein to allow
this gap. However, that might have inter- other scientists did not properly define the resonance to develop. There is no feedback
fered with his train of thought, for a few limits of their theories, Prigogine became mechanism between protein and the nucle-
paragraphs later he states unequivocally and upset. However, he made no effort to make otides.
with authority, an experimental determination of the limits
If there is no resonant behavior, then
of his own concepts.
Our universe has followed a path there is no self-organization. If there is no
involving a succession of bifurca- So, let’s see what happens when we do self-organization, then dissipative structures
tions. While other universes may his work for him, when we apply his stan- have nothing to do with the origin of life or
have followed other paths, we are dard for others to his own work. Since it with macroevolution.
fortunate that ours has led to life, was the extrapolation of Prigogine’s con-
3. Information. There is another seri-
culture, and the arts.15
cepts into biology that not only impressed
ous flaw in Prigogine’s application of dis-
He cannot demonstrate in a laboratory the Nobel Prize committee, but also has
sipative structures to living systems: all
a level of self-organization in dissipative become a basis of the evolutionist’s argu-
living systems are information based. The
structures which comes anywhere close to ments against entropy, let’s see if this ex-
activity within flutes, oscillating chemical
the complexity we see in biology. Nonethe- trapolation is reasonable.
reactions, and squall lines are all based on
less, he speaks with authority that these
Relevant issues free interactions between the constituent
structures are the source of the organization
particles making up the systems. Such
apparent in our universe, even to the appear- There are a number of relevant issues to
freedom of interaction does not exist in an
ance of “life, culture, and the arts.” This is consider.
information-based system.
Nobel Prize quality science?
1. Unavailability of raw materials.
Stored information is used both to build
Notice, though, that the organization We will not dwell on this issue. If self-
and to operate all the components of a living
present in a squall line is many orders of organization is to form life, there needs to
organism. However, there is no feedback
magnitude greater than that of an oscillating be a pre-biotic soup containing an abun-
loop available such that modifications to the
chemical reaction, which represents the pri- dance of both RNA nucleotides and amino
structures of an organism can result in a
4 Creation Matters
corresponding modification to the informa- es that there is still an overall increase in 12 Anonymous Wikipedia article. Belousov-
tion stored in a nucleotide sequence. There entropy as a nonequilibrium system ap- Zhabotinsky reaction.
is no mechanism of resonance between in- proaches equilibrium, even though the sys- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belousov-
formation content and the structures using tem has localized dissipative structures of Zhabotinsky_reaction (accessed May 23, 2008)
the information. Without a mechanism of self-organization and lower entropy.20 13 AnonymousWikipedia article. Briggs-Rauscher
reaction. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briggs-
resonance between information content and
The reality Rauscher_reaction (accessed May 23, 2008)
structures, there is no pathway for self-or-
14 Ref. 1, p. 71.
ganization to generate information. We may The reality is that in real life, self-organiza-
summarize this situation with the statement tion is only a temporary phenomenon of 15 Ref. 1, p. 72.
that “Resonance does not generate informa- extremely limited scope. Even this momen- 16 Ref. 1, p. 62.
tion.” tary self-organization does nothing to stop 17 Ref. 1, p. 29.
the overall increase in the entropy of the 18 Stout, T.R. 2008. Issues From Science That Point
4. An information decoder and copi-
system. The temporary self-organization we To And Require A Creator God.
er. The issue of information adds yet an-
www.creationtruthoutreach.org/Pamphlet/Our_P
observe in nature does not offer a method-
other layer of difficulty. Even if information amphlet.html (accessed May 23, 2008)
ology to overcome the problems of entropy
were to appear suddenly, it would be useless 19 Ref. 1, p. 66.
which are associated with the origin of life
without a decoder. Yet, in living systems
20 Ref. 1, p. 63–68.
or macroevolution. Prigogine’s principle of
it takes an extensive body of information to
an endless series of bifurcations of ever- 21 Revelation 4:11.
build and use a decoder. Hence, the initial
increasing order is contradicted by the ex-
appearance of information must be at least
Mr. Stout has a B.S. in physics from UCLA, has
amples of self-organization we see in real
in an adequate quantity to define the mech- 30 years of experience in industry as a design
life.
anisms required to interpret the information. engineer, and holds three U.S. patents in desali-
The problem is that it takes about a hundred It is sad, but the students I spoke with nation technology. He is president of Creation
or so components to build a decoder. who accepted at face value the testimony of Truth Outreach, Inc.
(www.creationtruthoutreach.org/).
their professors were terribly misled. Nature
As an illustration of irreducible com-
isnotcharacterized by an unlimited capacity
plexity, none of these components have any
of self-organization. Nature’s supposed
value unless all of them are present. An
unlimited ability to self-organize has not
information copying system also needs to
been proven experimentally. Dissipative
be defined in the information. The copier
structures are not a way around the road-
also needs to be present and working from
block entropy presents against a natural
the time information first appears.
origin of life. The laws of entropystillteach
In reality, neither a decoder nor a copier against the possibility of a natural, materi-
can work without an energy source. Ulti- alistic origin of life and against the possibil-
mately, the entire system (the entire cell) ity of macroevolution.
needs to make its initial appearance in a
There is only one rational explanation
single step. The single-step requirements
for the organization we see in the world
associated with building a functioning, in-
around us, an organization present in both Take advantage
formation-based system are not compatible
living and non-living systems. A brilliant,
with a series of bifurcations providing grad-
of the members’
all-powerful, Living God placed it there
ual increases in order, such as are charac-
when He created it. “You are worthy, O
teristic of Prigoginian self-organization. discount at the CRS
Lord, to receive glory and honor and power;
Prigogine’s claim that dissipative struc- for You created all things, and by Your will online bookstore
tures provide a suitable mechanism to bring they exist and were created.”21
about the origin of life is off the mark. It
References www.CRSbooks.org
does not apply to the real world. It is
philosophical speculation whose possibility
1 Prigogine, I. 1996.The End of Certainty.The Free
is contradicted by known, observed facts. Press, New York, NY. pp. 66, 70.
It should be brought out that even dur- 2 Ref. 1, p. 70.
ing the observed self-organization of stand- 3 Anonymous press release.
ing waves in flutes and of thunderstorms, http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/lau
reates/1977/press.html (accessed May 23, 2008)
the overall entropy of the system still in-
creases. In a flute, the increase in entropy 4 Ref. 1.
resulting from irreversible losses caused by 5 Ref. 1, pp. 39, 41–42, 44, 109, 111–112, 124, 126–
127, 149, 155–156, 159.
the total air column moving within the flute
is greater than the decrease represented by 6 Ref. 1, p. 3.
the standing wave. In a thunderstorm, the 7 Ref. 1, p. 66.
increase in entropy caused by the cold and 8 Ref. 1, p. 128.
warm air masses neutralizing each other is 9 Ref. 1, p. 70.
greater than any temporary, localized de- 10 Ref. 1, p. 71.
crease represented by the organization of a
11 Ref. 1, pp. 66–67.
thunderstorm. Even Prigogine acknowledg-
No. 3 May / June 2008 5
Letters
The Pre-Flood/Flood darkness (Genesis 1:3). One by-product of new soil on the surface of the dry land.
Boundary in the Grand forming light (generally all electromagnetic
The second part of God’s command on
radiation) is the particles that form atomic
Canyon: Clarification of a the third day is for the dry land to appear
matter. They make up a ‘conversion pair’;
Barnhart Reference above sea level. The birthing event of the
that is, each can be converted physically
dry land is described in more detail in Psalm
into the other. The waters that existed at
104:6-9. From a planet covered with sea-
W . R. Barnhart (2008) wrote a letter the beginning of the second day were sepa-
water, God raises at least one continent and
concerning an article by Froede and rated into all the celestial spheres in the
forms the ocean basins using the processes
Oard (2007) on the pre-Flood/Flood bound- universe and an expanse of space formed
of mountain building and valley lowering.
ary in the Grand Canyon. He references a between them (Genesis 1:6). A particular
We speculate that the raising of the land is
viewpoint article by DeRemer et al. (2007) planet of fluids, probably made of molten
initially a gigantic pluton or batholith of
on the first four days of Creation. As authors chemical compounds, was formed (Genesis
molten granite that pushed up through the
of the latter article, we would like to clarify 1:7), and we speculate that as it cooled, an
crust of the earth and displaced seawater
our position on two points related to his use amorphous crust formed on its surface. The
and sediment that had covered the surface.
of our article as a reference. reason for the speculation of a cooled crust
During this event, the water running off the
is that the planet would have stopped emit-
First, the amorphous liquid-like mass continent was a second major source of
ting visible light at the end of the second
he refers to couldn’t be the perfect fluid raw erosion that could cause a large amount of
day (Genesis 1:8).
material God created at the beginning. sediment. It is even possible sedimentary
Second, the events of the third day, as Our second point of clarification ad- and metamorphic rocks were formed due to
described in various Biblical references, dresses events of the third day and how they the high temperatures and pressures that the
allow for major erosion of the original planet relate to erosion. In our article, we describe gigantic pluton could generate as it came
surface to produce sediment for soil and the amorphous crust that formed on the up through the crust and spread laterally to
even to form sedimentary rock. planet at the end of the second day as con- form the continent(s).
sisting of solid rock with chambers filled
Our article clearly states that the origi- As our viewpoint article explains, God
with liquid and gaseous compounds. This
nal use of the word ‘earth’ in Genesis 1:1 made everything that exists in the universe
is where the molecules of these volatile
doesn’t refer to a planet or the material that except animals and mankind in the first four
chemical compounds could form from their
is now found in a planet. The use of the days of His work week. He used the raw
atomic elements and where they were
word ‘unformed’ in Genesis 1:2 to describe materials He created from nothing on the
trapped as the rock hardened.
the newly created ‘earth’ clearly excludes first day to accomplish this making. It is
from consideration a formed, concentric- The first part of God’s command on the our opinion that God used natural processes
shelled spherical shape like a planet. The evening of the third day is for the waters to accelerated to supernatural rates to make the
use of the word ‘darkness’ in that same verse gather in one place (Genesis 1:9). We universe and the planet Earth, probably in
implies the absence of every form of light, speculate that this causes the trapped gases addition to other supernatural feats. At the
because it hasn’t been formed yet. That also and liquids to burst through the surface and same time, He instituted the natural laws
excludes the existence of any atomic matter the molecular compound fluids to flow lat- that have governed the universe ever since.
as found in a planet. All atoms are held erally to cover the Earth. This birthing event These laws of nature determine our capabil-
together by electromagnetic forces and emit of the oceans and atmosphere is described ity to measure time, space, and matter, in
or absorb light at some frequency; see any in more detail by God in Job 38:8-11. The the habitat He created and made for man-
modern physics textbook or the popular majority of liquid that is initially released kind. They will not help us determine the
bookThe Elegant Universe by Brian Greene consists of hot seawater. The released gas- supernatural actions God used to establish
(2000) for more details. All light frequen- eous compounds form the thick, dark, orig- these laws.
cies were brought into existence at the same inal atmosphere of the planet. This seems
D. Dobberpuhl
time on the morning of the first day (Genesis to describe an extensive event of massive
F. DeRemer
1:3-5). From the liquid raw material that volcanoes and geysers everywhere on the
was created in darkness, God formed light Earth. It is a major erosion event and the References
(Isaiah 45:7), and by logical deduction, at first source of sediment.
Barnhart, W.R. 2008. Pre-Flood/Flood boundary in
the same time, atomic matter. We speculate that the atmosphere was the Grand Canyon: Further notes. Creation
Matters 13(2):4-5.
The article also explains that the origi- cleared later at dawn of the third day by the
Froede, C.R., Jr. and M.J. Oard. 2007. Defining the
nal use of the word ‘waters’ didn’t refer to burning of gases like methane, hydrogen,
pre-Flood/Flood boundary within the Grand
molecular water as we know it today. We and oxygen, plus solids of carbon and sulfur Canyon: Were all the pre-Flood sediments
believe that, originally, the ‘waters’ were a in the atmosphere. The majority of gaseous scoured down to basement during the Flood?
perfect fluid that God created at the begin- compounds that resulted were transparent Creation Matters 12(4):3–4, 6.
ning (Genesis 1:1-2) and used to make the like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and DeRemer, F., M. Amunrud, D. Dobberpuhl. 2007.
Days 1–4. Journal of Creation 21(3):69–76.
entire physical universe. By the start of the water vapor. Solids that helped form the
Greene, B. 2000. The Elegant Universe. Vintage
second day, the waters were the products of dark atmosphere were turned into transpar- Books, New York.
God’s forming light and separating it from ent gases or they precipitated out as carbon-
ates, sulfates, and nitrates that fertilized the
6 Creation Matters
Speaking of Science
Commentaries on recent news from science
Editor’s note: All S.O.S. (Speaking of Science) items in this issue are kindly provided by David believe we could reasonably infer the existence of intelligent design
Coppedge. Opinions expressed herein are his own. Additional commentaries and reviews of
in subatomic particles, which carry no information, due strictly to
news items by David, complete with hyperlinks to cited references, can be seen at:
www.creationsafaris.com/crevnews.htm. Unless otherwise noted, emphasis is added in all their physical characteristics. But finding a coded language in
quotes.
DNA, and calling that intelligent design, would undoubtedly be
Few Typos Get Past Your Spell Checker criticized as a religious argument. They think that high-energy
I neutrinos could only be produced by non-natural intelligent causes.
nside your cells are thousands of spell checkers
They probably believe DNA, however, with its sophisticated lan-
that put any human typist to shame. In a process
guage transcription and translation systems, was produced by
critical to all living things, RNA Polymerase II
natural causes.
transcribes DNA into RNA rapidly and with high
fidelity. Even very similar chemical letters are This must be valid scientific reasoning, because Science said
accurately discriminated by this wonder of a molec- so. The practical outcome would be that these scientists would
ular machine that is described in ScienceDaily.1 think it worth the money to sift through signatures of ghostly
particles at the South Pole to infer design, but not to advance the
The article describes its performance as
design inference from DNA into a reasoned investigation whether
“exquisite precision” and “unerring accuracy.”
a Designer capable of creating the most densely-packed and infor-
RNA Polymerase II (Pol II) has been studied for
mation-rich structures in the universe might have also communi-
years, but new secrets continue to pour forth. Two
cated with humans in more accessible ways.
teams have gleaned more details about how the proofreading
1. Holden, C. (ed.). 2008. Random Samples: An alien hello? Science
works. Mutations, they found, caused severe losses in fidelity.
320(5881):1267.
The researchers said their findings not only offer unprece-
dented details about the fidelity mechanism of Pol II, but
Preparing the World for Aliens
likely about fidelity inall cellular genetic copying machines.
What? You mean there’s more? Absolutely. From transcrip- S ome people are so convinced there are alien
tion to translation, each stage of protein manufacture from the DNA intelligences in the universe, we should be
template is checked for errors by molecular machines. When those getting ready to meet them. The Telegraph, a UK
machines break down due to mutations, bad things happen. The newspaper, reported that at the University of Wy-
last word: oming NASA has partly financed a creative writ-
ing class on “interstellar message
As DNA polymerase is responsible for gene replication, the
composition.”1 Professor Jeffrey Lockwood
result of its malfunction could be a burst of gene mutation
wants to help the 11 students think about what
causing an ‘error catastrophe’ that could lead to genome
we might say to an alien intelligence. One
instability andcancer formation.
student “created a poem about menstruation with
This is the science of intelligent design (ID) at work. No syllables arranged in a mathematically harmonious
mention of the E-word (evolution) was heard in this article. The order, known as the Fibonacci sequence.”
researchers were hot on the heels of major discoveries about how
The course is being advised by Douglas Va-
biological machines achieve phenomenal accuracy. And at what
koch, director of interstellar message composition
do they achieve phenomenal accuracy? the translation of coded
at the SETI Institute. Who better than writers, he said, to express
information. Information is a very ID-friendly word.
the human condition to our stellar neighbors. “It could be tomorrow
Evolutionists speak very little about information. What can that we’ll need to be ready to decide if we reply,” he said. Don’t
they say? That material particles subject to various non-intelligent expect a lively dialogue, though; each one-way message could take
forces built the most accurate code-storage and translation mech- thousands of years.
anisms known in nature? Let’s take off the darwinian leg irons
Over the Rockies at Denver, Jeff Peckman is asking the city
and propel science full speed into the Information Age.
council to create an “Extraterrestrial Affairs Commission,” reported
1. Cell Press. 2008. How cell’s master transcribing machine achieves near perfec-
the Denver Post.2 He believes the federal government is already
tion. ScienceDaily (6 June).
aware of extraterrestrials and is spending a great deal of taxpayer
www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080605120701.htm
money to conceal the fact. Peckman is gathering signatures for a
ballot initiative to create an 18-member commission, at the cost of
Alien Messages via Neutrinos
$75,000 a year, to decide on policies for dealing with space beings.
T The Rocky Mountain News said that Peckman believes he saw an
hree scientists are suggesting that SETI researchers comb
alien winking through a window on a video of a UFO.3
neutrinos for alien messages. Nothing natural could produce
high-energy neutrinos, they said in Science,1 so aliens may use Which of these space alien stories is absurd, pseudoscientific,
their cosmic accelerators to send neutrino packets across the inter- and an egregious abuse of taxpayer money? Pick any two.
galactic internet. They suggested watching for them in the neutrino
1. Leonard, T. 2008. Nasa sponsors course on how to talk to aliens.
detector at the South Pole. Telegraph.co.uk (19 May).
www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/1989062/Nasa-
Let’s strive to understand this reasoning. The three scientists
No. 3 May / June 2008 7
sponsors-course-on-how-to-talk-to-aliens.html described it as “past comprehension.” She said, “I knew the story of
2. Osher, C.N. 2008. Ballot plan wants E.T. to dial 303. Denverpost.com (9 Noah, but I had no idea the boat would have been so big.” She might
May). www.denverpost.com/news/ci_9199445
be more stunned to learn that Huibers’ model is only one-half the
3. Chacon, D.J. 2008. Evidence of space aliens? ET ballot issue backer says vid-
original as described in Genesis (see ChristianAnswers.net for mea-
eo provides proof. Rocky Mountain News (29 May).
surements and artists’ reconstructions2).
www.rockymountainnews.com/news/2008/may/29/evidence-of-space-aliens-
promised/ The AP story quipped that this might help people concerned about
rising sea levels resulting from global warming. Nowhere did the
Noah’s Ark Gets Balanced Treatment reports claim that Huibers expected his model to be seaworthy, though.
It’s more a museum. It will have a 50-seat theater, “ancient tools and
R
euters has given balanced treatment to the question of how Noah old-fashioned barrels, exotic stuffed animals, and a wax model of an
fit all the animals on the Ark.1 Evolutionists, of course, deny exhausted Noah reclining on a chair in the forecastle.” Huibers only
that Noah existed or a boat ever saved looked half as exhausted.
representatives of all the animals on earth.
This is certainly better than the
The article quoted mocking comments to
cartoony representations of Noah in a
the effect that there is no way up to 50
floating bathtub with elephant and giraffe
million species with vastly different envi-
heads sticking out the top. The true Ark’s
ronmental needs could have lived in a
dimensions ranked with those of large
floating zoo for a year.
ocean liners. Anything that helps eluci-
But reporter Alister Doyle also quot- date the actual story instead of mocking
ed Dr. David Menton, from Answers in might help a jaded, secularized public
Genesis, explaining factors that would think about Bible history more seriously.
have allowed God’s directive to be carried Maybe this limited project will inspire
out. Doyle agreed that the biblical de- someone to build a full-size model. That
scription of the Ark is “far from the tiny would be a real stunner. Better start soon;
vessel depicted in many children’s books it might take 100 years.
with giraffes’ heads sticking out the top.” Scale model exhibit at AIG’s Creation Museum 1. Associated Press. 2008. Replica of Noah’s
He gave Menton surprisingly ample space showing how the Ark may have looked based upon Ark opens doors to visitors.FoxNews.com (30
in the article. dimensions provided in the biblical account. April).
Photo by G. Wolfrom. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,269090,0
The question stemmed from a meet-
0.html
ing May 19-30 of the UN Convention on
2. Taylor, S.E. and P.S. Taylor. n.d. Could Noah’s Ark really hold all the ani-
Biological Diversity. Scientists are considering how to preserve earth’s mals that were supposed to be preserved from Flood?ChristianAnswers.net
biodiversity with some kind of modern-day refuge. A picture of a (accessed 27 June 2008). www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-c013.html
large wooden ship taking shape with a Mount Ararat in the background
adorns the article.
Canyon Formation: Another
Thank you, Alister Doyle, for attempting to give fair and balanced Catastrophic Rethink
reporting on this question. Was a floating refuge for the animals
possible? Don’t ridicule it till you’ve heard it defended with A mphitheater-shaped canyons are com-
competence.2,3 Consider also that dozens of people groups have mon throughout the West — and even
legends of a worldwide flood during which people and animals were on Mars. Geologists had them pretty well
preserved on a floating vessel. Only the biblical account comes close figured out. Water seeps out the bottom of
to feasibility and plausibility. Don’t forget, too, that geology provides a wall, weakening the face of a cliff. Grad-
evidence of sedimentation and erosion on colossal scales far greater ually, material collapses and leaves a large
than anything occurring today. For more evidences of a global flood, alcove that continues to recede headward.
see a brief article by geologist Dr. Andrew Snelling.4 That idea is now questioned by a new theory
that says catastrophic flooding produces these
1. Doyle, A. 2008. How did Noah's Ark float? New species cram aboard.Reuters
canyons suddenly.
(15 May).
www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSL0811445020080515?page
Space.com has a summary of a paper published in Science this
Number=1&virtualBrandChannel=0
week that re-evaluated a classic case, Box Canyon in Idaho. The new
2. Woodmorappe, J. 1996.Noah’s Ark: A Feasibility Study. Institute for Creation
theory is that sudden flooding, perhaps from melting ice sheets to the
Research, San Diego.
north, released a torrent of water that cut the canyon at one time. The
3. Sarfati, J. 1997. How did all the animals fit on Noah’s Ark? Creation
19(2):16-19. http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/595/ article estimated the complete canyon, cut into solid basalt, was eroded
4. Snelling, A.A. 2007. Geologic evidences for the Genesis Flood, Part I: An in 35 to 160 days at most. The flood theory explains unusual features,
overview. Answers Magazine (18 September). like scour marks on the walls and large boulders sitting out in the
www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v2/n4/geologic-evidences-part-one middle of nowhere, that were difficult to explain with the old theory.
An idea of the size of this “megaflood” was given in the article.
Noah’s Ark Goes Dutch Michael Lamb, geomorphologist at UC Berkeley, said, “Imagine
forcing a quarter of the flow in the Mississippi through a chute 32
N
oah’s ark has landed in the Netherlands. Johan Huibers, a Dutch
times as narrow and 1,000 times as steep as the Mississippi River
contractor, built the model to showcase the Biblical story and
channel.” 800 to 2,800 metric tons of water could have blasted through
renew interest in Christianity in a country that has lost its faith.
the channel at 22 miles per hour.
FoxNews.com1 and many other news sources carried versions of the
Associated Press story. Space.com reported this article because of its implications for
Mars research. If megafloods also formed the amphitheater-shaped
Visitors were stunned by the size of the model. One visitor
8 Creation Matters
canyons on the red planet, perhaps calm water did not exist for long became established in the population, but was once well adapted,
periods — a blow for those hoping life would have time to exist. is it valid to call that vestigial? Has Spinney done any experiments
to show what happens when the item is surgically removed? Dare
Another old-age paradigm has had to shift under new investiga-
say she would not sit comfortably without her coccyx. Many
tion. These kinds of canyons are very common in the arid southwest,
like in the Grand Canyon. Where did the water come from in the people were exposed to increased infections during the tonsillec-
desert? In the aftermath of a worldwide flood, such phenomena would tomy craze of the 1960s.
be expected, but not in a place where geologists feel huge seas of Spinney alleged that creationists have been anxious to
Sahara-like sand ruled for millions of years. deny that vestigial organs and evolution exist at all. Let’s turn
1. Choi, C.Q. 2008. Ancient flash floods sculpted Earth, Mars.Space.com (22 that ploy around. We hereby allege that evolutionists have been
May). www.space.com/scienceastronomy/080522-canyon-flood.html anxious to deny that complex specified information (and hence
creation) exist at all. We allege that Darwinism is a vestigial phi-
Vestigial Organs Have a Function: to Smear losophy from an atheistic past. Prove us wrong.
Creationism 1. Spinney, L. 2008. Five things humans no longer need.NewScientist.com (19
May). www.newscientist.com/article/dn13927-five-things-humans-no-
A re there body parts you could live without? Sure; people get longer-need.html?DCMP=ILC-hmts&nsref=news9_head_dn13927
by without fingers, teeth, legs, or even brains (figuratively 2. Stiffler, L. 2008. Fish in Lake Washington rapidly evolved — in reverse.
Seattlepi.com (16 May).
speaking). Some people think this is proof of evolution. New
http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/363263_oddfish16.html
Scientist, rather than showing how new organs and structures could
arise by mutation and natural selection, listed “five things humans
no longer need” as evidence for Darwin’s theory. Hobbit Prophecy: Somebody Will Take
a Big Fall
Laura Spinney’s article resurrects the “vestigial organs” argu-
T
ment for evolution, which “has come under attack fromcreation- he men of muddle earth are wondering
ists anxious to deny that vestigial organs (and hence evolution) what to do with their hobbit prisoners.
exist at all.” Her list includes: (1) the vomeronasal organ, (2) Elizabeth Culotta wrote in Science about
goose bumps, (3) Darwin’s point (on the outer ear), (4) the tail the ongoing debates among paleoanthropol-
bone (or coccyx), and (5) wisdom teeth. Each of these structures, ogists about how to interpret the diminutive
she argues, gives evidence of animal ancestry and not creation. skeletons found in the Liang Bua cave of
Flores in Indonesia, affectionately dubbed
Incidentally, Spinney did confess that “Probably the most
hobbits.1 After four years of study, there is
famous example,” the appendix, may have dropped off the list.
still no consensus on whether they were dis-
She said “it is now an open question whether the appendix is really
eased modern humans or some evolutionary side
vestigial.” The article suggested a function may be found for the
branch of hominids from Africa.
tonsils — another erstwhile vestigial organ. Spinney also was
equivocal about goose bumps; they “may have taken on a minor Paleoanthropologists meeting in Columbus, Ohio earlier this
new role,” like signaling emotions or heightening the pleasure of month got their first views of the LB1 skeleton. William Jungers
listening to beautiful music. of State University of New York at Stony Brook claimed the
creature had a slow gait, due to abnormalities with its feet. He
So here we have a fine thing; evolutionists using the loss of
believes the hobbit provides a window into the primitive bipedal
something as evidence that humans had bacteria ancestors. Tell
foot of australopithecines. For that to be true, Leslie Aiello of
us how to get an ear, teeth, a spine, skin and a nose in the first
New York City countered, it would have had to have remained
place before picking at little bits to call useless.
unchanged for a long time. “How it got there and managed to
A number of questions should be raised about this old vestigial- persist — that’s clearly a challenge to explain.” Others said there
organs argument. Did Spinney connect any of these items with is no evidence for a migration like that. To invent such a story is
its actual effect on reproduction? Are people with wisdom teeth clearly a case of “special pleading.”
dropping out of the dating game and failing to have children? Are
In short, no consensus has emerged about these small humans.
people with malformed bumps on their ears failing to hear the call
“Given the wildly diverging opinions on the hobbit,” Culotta ended,
of love? Are people with a coccyx unable to have kids? Is she a
“‘Somebody’s going to take a big fall here.’” She was quoting
Lamarckian? Does disuse itself lead to loss of structure? Why
paleoanthropologist C. Owen Lovejoy of Kent State University.
isn’t evolution more effective at getting rid of vestigial structures
Maybe the fall will become evident by fall (autumn, that is) since
if humans have been around for 300,000 years? Stickleback fish
another research team will be excavating the cave this summer.
got rid of their armor, and got it right back within human memory,
according to a recent news report (Seattlepi.com) that tells us Evolutionists would love to have another case of chimps
“Evolution is much faster than people give it credit for.” Why has becoming humans here. The early hopes have not materialized.
evolution been so slow at getting rid of useless structures in our Our prediction: the skeletons will be shown to be human. Wait
case? and see.
And who says they are useless, anyway? Evolutionists told 1. Culotta, E. 2008. When hobbits (slowly) walked the earth. Science
320(5875):433–435.
us the appendix, the pineal gland, the pituitary gland, and a hundred
other things were vestigial, only to have science find out they all
have functions after all. How do we know that they are not wrong
now about these five items? If an organ or structure has a function
at some stage in development, is it valid to call it vestigial? If it
is deformed in today’s physiology due to a congenital defect that
No. 3 May / June 2008 9
2008 CRS Board of Directors
and Guests
T he CRS Board of Directors met for their
annual meeting in Florence, KY on June
12–14. Pictured from left to right are: Ted
Aufdemberge, Gary Locklair, Mark Armit-
age, Ron Samec, Danny Faulkner, Russ Hum- ria
phreys, Dave Kaufmann, Gene Chaffin, Don lkc
o
DeYoung, Kevin Anderson, Glen Wolfrom, Mike L
Oard, Wayne Frair, and George Howe. Frair and .G
Howe are retired from the Board. Anderson is :tid
e
Director of the CRS Van Andel Creation Research r
c
Center. Board members not pictured are John oto
Reed, Lane Lester, and David Rodabaugh. hP
Creation Research Society
Nonprofit Org.
P.O. Box 8263
US Postage
St. Joseph, MO 64508-8263
PAID
USA
Creation Research Society
Address Service Requested
CCrreeaattiioonn MMaatttteerrss
May / June 2008
Vol. 13 No. 3
All by Design
by Jonathan C. O’Quinn, D.P.M., M.S.
E volution attributes the unique physi- about 40º from the prey, but focuses the
ology and behavior of animals to ac- prey image on the deep fovea. When prey
cidental forces working over immense is within close range, falcons break out of
periods of time. Peregrine Falcons that spiral and fly straight toward the prey,
argue against accidental development. focusing with the shallow foveae. This ap-
proach allows the falcon to cover the longer
Peregrines possess two regions of the
distance quicker than if it flew in a straight
retina, known as foveae, specialized for
line all the way with the head turned.
sharp vision. The deeper one, which is an-
gled 40–45º laterally, is designed for maxi- Peregrines possess both a specialized
mum visual acuity at long distances. The eye structure and the mathematical “wis-
shallow fovea, which is angled 15º laterally, dom” to know how to best approach prey.
is for sharp vision at short distances. Falcons That this species exists at all suggests that
prey upon birds, using the deep foveae to this behavior and physiology were in place
spot prey as far away as 1,500 m. Turning from day one and did not evolve in stages.
the head by about 40º keeps one deep fovea
Bibliography:
focused on distant prey. However, flying in
a straight line toward prey with the head 1. Tucker, V.A., A.E. Tucker, et al. 2000. Curved
turned would increase the aerodynamic drag flight paths and sideways vision in peregrine
falcons (Falco peregrines). J. Exp. Biol.
coefficient on the falcon’s body by a factor
203:3755–63.
of two or more. Peregrine Falcon
2. Tucker V.A. 2000. The deep fovea, sideways vi-
To decrease drag, falcons hold their Credit: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. sion and spiral flight paths in raptors.J. Exp.
Photo by Craig Koppie, USFWS Biol. 203:3745–54.
heads straight, but fly in a logarithmic spiral
3. Schwab I.R. and D. Maggs. 2004. The falcon’s
toward prey. This keeps the head angled
stoop.Br. J. Ophthalmology 88:4.
10 Creation Matters