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Elissaios Papyrakis Editor COVID-19 and International Development COVID-19 and International Development Elissaios Papyrakis Editor COVID-19 and International Development Editor Elissaios Papyrakis International Institute of Social Studies (ISS) Erasmus University Rotterdam The Hague, The Netherlands ISBN 978-3-030-82338-2 ISBN 978-3-030-82339-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82339-9 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover image: ‘Horns of plenty’ (oil on canvas, 2020) © Peeter Burgeik This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Preface The Covid-19 pandemic is currently reversing development gains that were achieved with much dedicated effort in most parts of the developing world during the last few decades. The Covid-19 economic downturn contributed to a rise in global poverty for the first time since the early 2000s. Existing inequalities interlink with the Covid-19 impacts to intensify the vulnerabilities of low-income communities and individuals. Many intertwined factors generate a toxic mix that disadvantages devel- oping economies and their populations. The unprecedented health crisis in India (especially since April 2021) with severe oxygen shortage at hospitals exposed the unpreparedness of its public health system. While developed economies can resort to significant fiscal and monetary expansion (at a very low cost), developing nations face severe liquidity constraints and restricted access to international funds. At the same, governments in developed nations reduced their bilateral development assis- tance reserving funds for their own economies. This lack of international solidarity is further exemplified by the unequal distribution of vaccines globally. The media’s portrayal of the Covid-19 pandemic in developed countries is largely skewed towards highlighting domestic health developments and policy responses. In an ever-interconnected world, however, isolationist reactions are unlikely to provide solutions to global health problems that will prevent the further mutation of the virus and its rapid spread across national borders. Similarly, protec- tionist measures and curbed international aid are likely to slow down the pace of the global economic recovery. This is a book written by development specialists to explicitly discuss how the current pandemic influences international development debates and to reflect on the specificities of developing countries and the challenges they currently face. Its novelty lies in being the first book that explains the multifac- eted implications of the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic for international development from a social science perspective. It is the outcome of a collaborative project between scholars based at the International Institute of Social Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, and other scientists coming primarily from the Global South. It is a joint effort to highlight inequalities in Covid-19 vulnerability and expose their underlying causes. Each chapter focuses on a specific field of international develop- ment and examines how the current pandemic amplifies pre-existing challenges and grievances. v vi Preface We wrote this book having in mind the interested but not necessarily specialist reader – we analyse key issues in a simple and comprehensive manner, without resorting to technical language or assuming prior knowledge of the field. We expect that the book will be particularly helpful for students in economics, political sci- ence, anthropology, international relations, geography and international develop- ment, who wish to familiarise themselves with the multifaceted implications of the Covid-19 pandemic for developing countries. In addition, we anticipate that the book will be of interest to researchers and practitioners who want to learn about how the current coronavirus pandemic fundamentally reshapes existing debates and pro- cesses in international development. The Hague, The Netherlands Elissaios Papyrakis Acknowledgements We are grateful to many of our colleagues and friends, who generously provided their feedback and ideas (and helped us shape the book in its current form). We have been very fortunate in having Springer’s generous support (and patience) towards this research endeavour – we are especially grateful to Ambrose Berkumans, Margaret Deignan, Karthika Menon, Metilda Nancy Marie Rayan and Hermine Vloemans for their continuous guidance and feedback across various stages of the process. We are also much indebted to our family and friends, who were the first ones to read parts of the book and provide their honest opinion on the covered material. We wish to dedicate this book to our students who often do not realise how much we ourselves learn from them; they inspire us to think outside the box and they are our fellow companions in our lifelong journey of learning. We have much admira- tion for them. Their studies have been much disrupted by the Covid-19 pandemic and their social interaction has been largely confined to the virtual space. For almost all of them, this has been a very difficult and challenging year; they had to maintain focus on their studies and assignments, despite worrying about their affected family members and friends at home. vii Contents 1 Covid-19 and International Development: Impacts, Drivers and Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Elissaios Papyrakis 2 Reforming the International Financial and Fiscal System for Better COVID-19 and Post-pandemic Crisis Responsiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Rolph van der Hoeven and Rob Vos 3 COVID-19 and the Threat to Globalization: An Optimistic Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Sylvanus Kwaku Afesorgbor, Peter A. G. van Bergeijk, and Binyam Afewerk Demena 4 Experiences of Eritrean and Ethiopian Migrants During COVID-19 in the Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Bezawit Fantu, Genet Haile, Yordanos Lassooy Tekle, Sreerekha Sathi, Binyam Afewerk Demena, and Zemzem Shigute 5 Consequences of the Covid-19 Pandemic for Economic Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Syed Mansoob Murshed 6 The Short-Term Impact of COVID-19 on Labour Market Outcomes: Comparative Systematic Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Binyam Afewerk Demena, Andrea Floridi, and Natascha Wagner 7 Covid-19 and the Informal Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Michele Romanello 8 Indirect Health Effects Due to COVID-19: An Exploration of Potential Economic Costs for Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Natascha Wagner ix x Contents 9 Effects of COVID-19 on Education and Schools’ Reopening in Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Georgina M. Gómez and G. J. Andrés Uzín P. 10 Indigenous People, Extractive Imperative and Covid-19 in the Amazon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Murat Arsel and Lorenzo Pellegrini 11 Covid-19 and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Agni Kalfagianni and Elissaios Papyrakis 12 Covid-19 and Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Farhad Mukhtarov, Elissaios Papyrakis, and Matthias Rieger Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Chapter 1 Covid-19 and International Development: Impacts, Drivers and Responses Elissaios Papyrakis Abstract The current coronavirus pandemic fundamentally reshapes existing debates and processes in international development. The unprecedented (and rap- idly evolving) crisis is generating a number of substantial challenges for developing economies. Governments in low-income nations often find it extremely hard to cope with the increased demand for health services, make prompt decisions and put them into action, protect vulnerable segments of society and offer immediate relief to affected economic sectors. The current pandemic influences several development outcomes (in the domains of poverty/inequality, health, education, migration, for- mal/informal employment, (de)globalisation, the extractive sector, climate change, water and the global financial system). 1.1 Introduction Since the first known human infections in Wuhan, China in late 2019, the coronavi- rus SARS-CoV-2 (responsible for the Covid-19 disease and current pandemic) has rapidly spread to almost every single country around the world. There are currently more than three million deaths attributed to Covid-19 (and close to 140 million infections – although the accuracy of these figures depends largely on the testing practices of individual countries). Many developing countries have experienced a very large (cumulative) number of Covid-19 related deaths; Brazil, Mexico and India, for instance, have reported more than 365,000, 210,000 and 170,000 coronavirus- related deaths (as of April 2021; detailed information can be found at the WHO website: https://covid19.who.int). The limited institutional preparedness and poor health infrastructure to deal with the rapid spread of the virus was much E. Papyrakis (*) International Institute of Social Studies (ISS), Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Hague, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1 Switzerland AG 2022 E. Papyrakis (ed.), COVID-19 and International Development, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82339-9_1

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