Counter-terrorism community engagement: Pitfalls and opportunities

185 Pages·2021·3.641 MB·English

by  Jason Hartley

Counter-terrorism community
engagement
This book offers insights into the building of trust in Muslim communities
through community engagement in a climate of counter-terrorism.
Police engagement with Muslim communities is complex with a history of
distrust. This book first attempts to understand the role and implications of
uncertainty on community engagement in Muslim communities, and then
explores the cultural nuances associated with the demonstration of
trustworthiness and decisions to bestow trust. It further highlights the
complexities and implications for Muslim leaders when trying to
simultaneously engage police and appease their own communities; the
book exposes community perceptions of an over-reaction by authorities
that has moved suspicion from a handful of terrorists to the entire Muslim
community, resulting in problematic community perceptions that Muslim
communities are being targeted by police. The findings suggest that the
intentionality of police is a highly significant consideration in trust
negotiations, and reveals a number of cultural preferences considered
critical to trust negotiations. The book further highlights opportunities to
enhance the development of trust and avoid pitfalls that can be problematic
to community engagement. The lessons learned seek to enhance the existing
body of literature regarding strategies and resources to improve counter-
terrorism community engagement with Muslim communities.
This book will be of much interest to students of counter-terrorism,
preventing violent extremism, deradicalization, and security studies.
Jason Hartley is a Lecturer in Criminology at Griffith University, Australia.
Routledge studies in countering violent extremism
This book series sets out to become the first interdisciplinary platform for the
study of issues pertaining to countering violent extremism, such as deradicali-
zation and disengagement programs and individuals as well as collective pro-
cesses of leaving terrorism and violent extremism behind. Additional focus
points will be the impact of programs, different cultural notions of CVE, results
of large-scale CVE-related research projects, specific guidance for practitioners
and policymakers in building and maintaining CVE programs, mechanisms to
evaluate initiatives, as well as innovative techniques to design new ones. The
series aims to help establish a new field of “deradicalization studies” and to build
a bridge across the disconnect between experts from different fields, countries,
and specialities.
Counter-terrorism community engagement
Pitfalls and opportunities
Jason Hartley
For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.routledge.com/
Routledge-Studies-in-Countering-Violent-Extremism/book-series/CVE
Counter-terrorism
community engagement
Pitfalls and opportunities
Jason Hartley
First published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business.
© 2021 Jason Hartley
The right of Jason Hartley to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or
other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
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system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 978-0-367-68071-8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-68078-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-13409-1 (ebk)
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Contents
Acknowledgments vi
1 Introduction 1
2 The impact of uncertainty 21
3 Cultural notions of trust 44
4 Muslim leadership and counter-terrorism 86
5 Discussion, context, and implications 122
6 Conclusion 140
Appendix 1: Prevent and Muslim trust 156
Index 174
Acknowledgments
I express my appreciation to those who are so many that they cannot be
named, including my family and friends who have always been there, and
through their own precious examples have highlighted the priceless virtue
and endeavour of making a difference. In this regard, I have to recognise my
much-loved spouse, who made constant sacrifices so that this work could be
completed in good time. Furthermore, my sister spent numerous hours
editing and proofreading. Professor Lorraine Mazerolle and Professor
Adrian Cherney should also be acknowledged for their support and
direction.
I offer my thanks to the Queensland Police Service (QPS) for allowing
access to their staff, which was undertaken in a completely professional
manner. In this vein, I have to acknowledge the efforts of Detective
Inspector Mike Newman, who diligently utilised his networks and
influence to ensure the best possible opportunities for research.
I would also like to acknowledge the plight of Muslim communities in a
time that has been extremely challenging for a number of reasons.
Community members were always accommodating while genuinely
concerned about issues with a readiness and enthusiasm to contribute to
the well-being of Australian society. In this regard, I have to offer my sincere
thanks.
1 Introduction
This book seeks to make a contribution to help improve the capacity of police
and associated partners when engaging Muslim communities in a climate of
counter-terrorism that is often characterised by high emotions and distrust. In
its simple form, it seeks to expose both pitfalls and opportunities to enhance
community engagement by focusing on the deeper dynamics of the “who,
what, when, how, and why” to improve trust relations with Muslim com-
munities, which aims to improve partnership and problem solving. In this
fashion, this book advocates that successful community engagement in view
of current challenges requires a victory of Muslim hearts and minds which
cannot be achieved until there is more genuine effort to understand Muslim
hearts and minds. Such comment doesn’t intend to overlook other forms of
extremism nor single out Muslim communities, but rather highlight the sal-
ience of this topic in view of current challenges.
The events of 11 September 2001 (9/11) caused unprecedented social and
political upheaval, with widespread recognition that “the new war on terror”
would be the greatest challenge of the 21st century (Burnett & Whyte, 2005;
McCulloch & Pickering, 2010; Mythen, Walklate, & Khan, 2013; Pantazis &
Pemberton, 2009; Spalek, 2010). Coercive counter-terrorism strategies
throughout the world quickly emerged as the primary basis for policing
terrorism. In Australia, the counter-terrorism response involved a period of
“hyper legislation” unmatched by any other country (Spalek & Lambert,
2008), resulting in claims by Muslim communities that they had been un-
fairly singled out through indiscriminate counter-terrorism policing
(Murphy, Cherney, & Barkworth, 2015; Mythen et al., 2013; Spalek, 2013;
Spalek & Lambert, 2008; Walklate, Mythen,& McGarry, 2011). This re-
sulted in a climate of hostility toward Muslim minority communities that
included media stereotyping (Whitaker, 2002), a rise in Islamophobic atti-
tudes (Allen, 2012; Meer, Dwyer, & Modood, 2010; Poynting & Mason,
2007), racially motivated violence (Allen & Nielsen, 2002; Frost, 2008), and
Muslims being labelled with a “suspect community” status (Pickering,
McCulloch, & Wright-Neville, 2008).
Metropolitan Police Commissioner Sir Ian Blair stated: “It is the com-
munities that defeat terrorism, not the police” (Husband & Alam, 2011),
2 Introduction
serving to highlight the paramount importance of community engagement
through a “hearts and mind” approach (Beutel, 2015; Birt, 2009;
Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG), 2007; Innes,
2006; Pickering et al., 2008; Spalek, 2010; Thacher, 2005; Vermeulen, 2014;
Vermeulen & Bovenkerk, 2012). Yet, the literature exposes numerous clear
examples of counter-terrorism responses alienating the very communities
that are a key line of defence against terrorist propaganda and recruitment
(English, 2010; Klausen, 2009; LaFree & Dugan, 2009; Murphy et al., 2015;
Parmar, 2011; Pickering et al., 2008; Saggar, 2009). As such, there is an
ongoing concern that counter-terrorism engagement strategies continue to
undermine the perceived legitimacy of authorities to deal with counter-
terrorism (Allen, 2012; LaFree & Dugan, 2009; Meer et al., 2010; Poynting
& Mason, 2007; Spalek, 2010). One example includes a recognition that
intelligence gathering relies on community trust as a critical mechanism to
prevent a terrorist incident. However, the police risk losing credibility if
Muslim communities perceive community policing as little more than an
apparatus to gather intelligence (Birt, 2009; Currier, 2015; Kundnani, 2014;
Lambert, 2011; O’Toole, Meer, De Hanas, Jones, & Moodood, 2016;
Richards, 2012; Spalek & O’Rawe, 2014).
Spalek (2013) suggests that the counter-terrorism context easily generates
resentment and distrust between police and Muslims given the high level of
emotionality and its negative impact on Muslim communities (Spalek &
O’Rawe, 2014). This sentiment is supported by an array of scholars pointing
out that over-policing has eroded trust between the police and Muslim
communities, leaving communities feeling stigmatised and upset (Bowling &
Phillips, 2007; Jefferson, Walker, & Seneviratne, 1992; Jones & Newburn,
2001; Sivanandan, 1981; Smith & Gray, 1985; Thacher, 2005; Sharp &
Atherton, 2007). The result is a counter-terrorism landscape that is often
characterised as socially and culturally complex, with high emotionality
through strained community relationships with police (Cherney & Hartley,
2015; Dixon & Maher, 2002; Lambert, 2011; McCulloch & Pickering, 2008;
New South Wales Parliament Legislative Council (NSWPLC), 2001;
Pickering et al., 2008; Spalek, 2013; Spalek, El Awa, McDonald, & Lambert,
2008; Thacher, 2005).
The application of stop and search powers by police (Spalek, 2013) and
the blanket surveillance of Muslim communities (Walklate et al., 2011) has
raised concerns that Muslim communities are unfairly singled out by in-
discriminate counter-terrorism policing. Police raids of Muslim homes
(Mythen et al., 2013), informal questioning of Muslims, and the cancelling
of passports preventing Muslims from travelling overseas (Murphy et al.,
2015) has further bolstered claims by Muslim communities that they are
under siege (Blackwood, Hopkins, & Reicher, 2013; Cherney & Murphy,
2015; Kundnani, 2014). In short, over-policing has left Muslim communities
feeling targeted and upset (Bowling & Phillips, 2007; Cherney & Hartley,
2015; Cherney & Murphy, 2015; Jones & Newburn, 2001; Sharp &
Introduction 3
Atherton, 2007; Waddington, Stenson, & Don, 2004). In this vein, Shami
Chakrabarti, the founder of Liberty (in Mythen et al. 2013, p. 11) described
Prevent, the UK’s counter-radicalisation program, as “the biggest spying
programme in Britain in modern times and an affront to civil liberties.” As
such, Prevent has been widely branded in Muslim communities as a toxic
brand, resulting in the disengagement and withdrawal of Muslim leaders to
the extent that association by leaders carries the potential to challenge their
leadership legitimacy and influence within their own communities.
This means that police efforts to engage Muslim communities within the
context of counter-terrorism is built upon a precarious and unstable foun-
dation (Cherney & Hartley, 2015). These dynamics expose difficulties to
secure trust and the voluntary cooperation of ethnic minority groups
(Cherney & Chui, 2010), making counter-terrorism community engagement
highly controversial and difficult to sustain (Cherney & Hartley, 2015;
Lambert, 2011; Pickering et al., 2008, Spalek, 2013, Spalek et al. 2008;
Thacher, 2005). Not surprisingly, there is clear evidence in Australia that
ethnic minority groups have particularly problematic and poor relationships
with police (Dixon & Maher, 2002; NSWPLC, 2001; Pickering et al., 2008).
Govier (1998) suggests that efforts by authorities to control communities
are an expression of distrust while Darley (2004) and Tyler (2006) state that
it is difficult, if not impossible, to effectively control citizens based on leg-
islation and/or use of power. Alderson and Goodey (1998) bolster this point
by suggesting that a police department with solid public support will be
more effective than a more powerful police department lacking public
support in the absence of community trust.
Jensen (2006) observed that in Muslim communities, building trust has to
be at the forefront of best practice. Spalek (2010) advocates that the success
or failure of community-based counterterrorism will depend on the extent to
which trusting relationships are built between police officers and commu-
nities. In this light, the literature on counter-terrorism community engage-
ment consistently refers to the critical importance of trust as the foundation
of progress (Briggs, 2010; Hillyard, 1993, 2005). Yet, despite widespread
recognition concerning the paramount importance of trust, Spalek (2013)
elaborates that little is known about how authorities within a “new ter-
rorism” context go about building trust, or whether the building of a deeper
robust trust in this context is even possible. Spalek (2010) points out that an
absence of research and literature on the deeper dynamics of trust only
serves to undermine its critical importance as the basis of community en-
gagement. Spalek (2010) further expresses her concerns that the window of
opportunity is narrowing in the midst of emerging challenges.
The genuine fear is the continued alienation of the very communities who
are also considered the key line of defence against terrorist propaganda and
recruitment (English, 2010; Klausen, 2009; LaFree, & Dugan, 2009; Murphy
et al., 2015; Parmar, 2011; Peek, 2011; Pickering et al., 2008). As such, the
problem is that counter-terrorism community engagement strategies that fail