Table Of Content

C H Introduction to Cost and Management A P T Accounting in a Global Business Environment E R 1 L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S After completing this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 1 How do financial and management accounting relate to each other? 2 How does cost accounting relate to financial and management accounting? 3 What is the role of a code of ethics in guiding the behaviors of an organization’s global workforce? 4 What factors have influenced the globalization of businesses and why have these factors been significant? 5 What are the primary factors and constraints that influence an organization’s strategy and why are these factors important? 6 How does an organization’s competitive environment impact its strategy and how might an organization respond to competition? 7 How does the accounting function impact an organization’s ability to successfully achieve its strategic goals and objectives? 8 Why is a company segment’s mission affected by product life cycle? 9 What is the value chain and why is it important in managing a business? AB N AMRO INTRODUCING Bank http://www.abnamro.com T he Netherlands-based bank, ABN AMRO, was ABN AMRO formulated an identity statement in 1992 formed in 1990 when Algemene Bank Nederland to reflect its corporate aspirations: “ABN AMRO Bank is a merged with Amsterdam-Rotterdam Bank. Following the long-established, solid, multi-faceted bank of international merger, ABN AMRO has established itself as a global bank reputation and standing. We will strive to fulfill the bank’s with operations in 76 countries and territories including ambition in being a frontrunner in value-added banking, the United States, where the bank has a 16% share of the both on a local and worldwide level....” The corporate Midwest market. ABN AMRO’s global expansion was driven values statement was formalized in 1997, although the initially by mergers but more recently by innovative web- values have been important priorities since the bank was based delivery of products and services. established in the 1800s. The four values forming the basis By traditional measures (such as its $505 billion in as- of the bank’s activities are integrity, teamwork, respect, sets and its capital position), ABN AMRO is the largest and professionalism. Bank managers believe that the values bank in Holland, the fourth largest in Europe, and the need to be formalized even though they are and should eighth largest in the world. ABN AMRO’s core lending be self-evident. The formalization provides external parties business is solid. Over half of ABN AMRO’s revenues criteria by which the bank can be assessed. ABN AMRO come from Dutch clients—a very stable source of business perceives its corporate identity and values as the underlying that includes such companies as Royal Dutch Shell, Philips tenets of the organization. Electronics, and Unilever. SOURCE:www.abnamro.com/profile; Chris Costanzo, “ABN AMRO Says Web Will Anchor Its Expansion,” American Banker(December 9, 1999), p. 16. ABN AMRO is successfully pursuing a corporate identity as a “bank of international reputation and standing.” ABN AMRO was ranked as the fifth largest commercial and savings bank and the seventy-third largest corporation in the 1999 Fortune Global 500. The corporation (with its foreign subsidiaries and affiliates) is com- prised of over 3,500 branches and offices in 76 countries and territories across five continents. Although international trade was once confined to extremely large cor- porations such as ABN AMRO, the explosion of World Wide Web usage has en- abled any business with the right infrastructure capabilities and the necessary funds for Web site development to market its products and services around the world. Organizations operating globally face three primary challenges. First, managers must understand factors influencing international business markets so they can iden- tify locations in which the company has the strengths and desire to compete. Sec- ond, managers must devise a long-term plan to achieve organizational goals. Third, the company must devise information systems that keep operations consistent with its plans and goals. This chapter introduces cost accounting and describes the global environment of business, international market structures, trade agreements, e-commerce, and legal and ethical considerations. It addresses the importance of strategic planning and links strategy creation and implementation to the accounting information system. The chapter discussion applies equally well to large and small profit-seeking businesses, and most discussion is appropriate for not-for-profit and governmental entities. INTRODUCTION TO COST ACCOUNTING To manage a diverse, international banking organization, ABN AMRO’s leaders need monetary and nonmonetary information that helps them to analyze and solve 3 4 Part 1 Overview problems by reducing uncertainty. Accounting, often referred to as the language of business, provides much of that necessary information. Accounting language has two primary “variations”: financial accounting and management accounting. Cost accounting is a bridge between financial and management accounting. Accounting information addresses three different functions: (1) providing information to external parties (stockholders, creditors, and various regulatory bodies) for investment and credit decisions; (2) estimating the cost of products produced and services provided by the organization; and (3) providing information useful to internal managers who are responsible for planning, controlling, decision making, and evaluating performance. Financial accounting is designed to meet external information needs and to comply with generally accepted accounting principles. Man- agement accounting attempts to satisfy internal information needs and to provide product costing information for external financial statements. The primary differences between these two accounting disciplines are given in Exhibit 1–1. Financial accounting must comply with the generally accepted accounting principles (currently established by the Financial Accounting Standards Board [FASB], a private-sector body). The information used in financial accounting is typically historical, quantifiable, monetary, and verifiable. These characteristics are essential to the uniformity and consistency needed for external financial statements. Finan- cial accounting information is usually quite aggregated and related to the organization as a whole. In some cases, a regulatory agency such as the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) or an industry commission (such as banking or insurance) may mandate financial accounting practices. In other cases, financial accounting information is required for obtaining loans, preparing tax returns, and understanding how well or poorly the business is performing. By comparison, management accounting provides information for internal users. Because managers are often concerned with individual parts or segments of the business rather than the whole organization, management accounting information commonly addresses such individualized concerns rather than the “big picture” of financial accounting. Management accounting is not required to adhere to generally accepted accounting principles in providing information for managers’ internal purposes. It is, however, expected to be flexible in serving management’s needs EXHIBIT 1–1 Financial Accounting Management Accounting Financial and Management Primary users External Internal Accounting Differences Primary organizational focus Whole (aggregated) Parts (segmented) Information characteristics Must be May be • Historical • Current or forecasted • Quantitative • Quantitative or qualitative • Monetary • Monetary or nonmonetary • Verifiable • Timely and, at a minimum, reasonably estimated Overriding criteria Generally accepted Situational relevance accounting principles (usefulness) Consistency Benefits in excess of costs Verifiability Flexibility Recordkeeping Formal Combination of formal and informal Chapter 1 Introduction to Cost and Management Accounting in a Global Business Environment 5 and to be useful to managers’ functions. A related criterion is that information should be developed and provided only if the cost of producing that information is less than the benefit of having it. This is known as cost-benefit analysis. These two criteria, though, must be combined with the financial accounting information criteria of verifiability, uniformity, and consistency, because all accounting docu- ments and information (whether internal or external) must be grounded in reality rather than whim. The objectives and nature of financial and management accounting differ, but 1 all accounting information tends to rely on the same basic data system and set of How do financial and accounts. The accounting system provides management with a means by which management accounting relate costs are accumulated from input of materials through the production process un- to each other? til completion and, ultimately, to cost of goods sold. Although technology has improved to the point that a company can have different accounting systems designed for different purposes, some companies still rely on a single system to supply the basic accounting information. The single system typically focuses on providing information for financial accounting purposes, but its informational output can be adapted to meet most internal management requirements. Relationship of Financial and Management Accounting 2 to Cost Accounting How does cost accounting relate to financial and management Cost accounting is defined as “a technique or method for determining the cost accounting? of a project, process, or thing.... This cost is determined by direct measurement, arbitrary assignment, or systematic and rational allocation.”1The appropriate method cost accounting of determining cost depends on the circumstances that generate the need for information. Various costing methods are illustrated throughout the text. Central to a cost accounting system is the process for tracing various input costs to an organization’s outputs (products or services). This process uses the traditional accounting form of recordkeeping—general and subsidiary ledger accounts. Accounts containing cost and management accounting information include those dealing with sales, procurement (materials and plant assets), production and inventory, person- nel, payroll, delivery, financing, and funds management.2 Not all cost information is This manufacturer of televisions must use cost accounting techniques to determine financial statement valuations for product inventory and cost of goods sold. 1Institute of Management Accountants (formerly National Association of Accountants), Statements on Management Accounting Number 2: Management Accounting Terminology(Montvale, N.J.: NAA, June 1, 1983), p. 25. 2With reference to accounts, this text will focus primarily on the set of accounts that depicts the internal flow of costs. 6 Part 1 Overview reproduced on the financial statements, however. Correspondingly, not all financial accounting information is useful to managers in performing their daily functions. Cost accounting creates an overlap between financial accounting and management accounting. Cost accounting integrates with financial accounting by providing product costing information for financial statements and with management accounting by providing some of the quantitative, cost-based information managers need to perform their tasks. Exhibit 1–2 depicts the relationship of cost accounting to the larger systems of financial and management accounting. None of the three areas should be viewed as a separate and exclusive “type” of accounting. The boundaries of each are not clearly and definitively drawn and, because of EXHIBIT 1–2 changing technology and information needs, are becoming increasingly blurred. Accounting Information System Components and Relationships External parties, including shareholders 1 2 3 4 Cproosvtides information IntegrantahlFe arlo cdwcaostua inn ftotaornts 111111111212232322232232150153463462898277091509134632827 For use by Internal accountants for inventory and cost of goods sold or Financial Accounting cost of services rendered for the provides information for financial statements periodic financial statements Management (cid:1) Management (cid:1) (cid:1) (cid:2) Accounting AIS output to be combined with provides information other external for internal management Monetary Nonmonetary Analysis information by information information managers to use in Planning Controlling Decision Evaluating making performance Chapter 1 Introduction to Cost and Management Accounting in a Global Business Environment 7 The cost accounting overlap causes the financial and management accounting systems to articulate or be joined together to form an informational network. Be- cause these two systems articulate, accountants must understand how cost accounting provides costs for financial statements and supports management information needs. Organizations that do not manufacture products may not require elaborate cost accounting systems. However, even service companies need to understand how much their services cost so that they can determine whether it is cost-effective to be engaged in particular business activities. Management and Cost Accounting Standards Management accountants can use different costs and different information for different purposes, because their discipline is not required to adhere to generally accepted accounting principles when providing information for managers’ internal use. In the United States, financial accounting standards are established by the Fi- nancial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), a private-sector body. No similar board exists to define universal management accounting standards. However, a public- sector board called the Cost Accounting Standards Board (CASB) was established in 1970 by the U.S. Congress to promulgate uniform cost accounting standards for defense contractors and federal agencies. The CASB produced 20 cost accounting standards (of which one has been withdrawn) from its inception until it was terminated in 1980. The CASB was recre- ated in 1988 as an independent board of the Office of Federal Procurement Pol- icy. The board’s objectives are to • Increase the degree of uniformity in cost accounting practices among government contractors in like circumstances; • Establish consistency in cost accounting practices in like circumstances by each individual contractor over time; and • Require contractors to disclose their cost accounting practices in writing.3 Although CASB standards do not constitute a comprehensive set of rules, compliance is required for companies bidding on or pricing cost-related contracts for the federal government. An organization important to the practice of management and cost accounting is the Institute of Management Accountants, or the IMA. The IMA is a voluntary membership organization of accountants, finance specialists, academics, and oth- ers. It sponsors two major certification programs: Certified Management Accoun- tant (CMA) and Certified in Financial Management (CFM). The IMA also issues direc- tives on the practice of management and cost accounting called Statements on Management Accounting, or SMAs. The SMAs, unlike the pronouncements of the CASB, are not legally binding standards, but they undergo a rigorous develop- mental and exposure process that ensures their wide support. An organization similar to the IMA is the Society of Management Accountants of Canada, which also issues guidelines on the practice of management accounting. These Management Accounting Guidelines (MAGs), like the SMAs, are not requirements for organizational accounting, but are merely suggestions. Although the IMA, Cost Accounting Standards Board, and Society of Manage- ment Accountants of Canada have been instrumental in standards development, much of the body of knowledge and practice in management accounting has been provided by industry practice and economic and finance theory. Thus, no “official” agency publishes generic management accounting standards for all companies, but there is wide acceptance of (and, therefore, authority for) the methods presented in the text. The development of cost and management accounting standards and 3Robert B. Hubbard, “Return of the Cost Accounting Standards Board,” Management Accounting(October 1990), p. 56. 8 Part 1 Overview practices indicates that management accountants are interested and involved in professional recognition. Another indication of this movement is the adoption of ethics codes by both the IMA and the various provincial societies in Canada. Ethics for Management Accountant Professionals 3 What is the role of a code of Because of the pervasive nature of management accounting and the organizational ethics in guiding the behaviors level at which many management accountants work, the IMA believed that some of an organization’s global workforce? guidelines were necessary to help its members with ethical dilemmas. Thus, State- ment on Management Accounting 1C, Standards of Ethical Conduct for Manage- ment Accountants, was adopted in June 1983. These standards are in the areas of competence, confidentiality, integrity, and objectivity. The IMA Code of Ethics is reproduced in Exhibit 1–3. EXHIBIT 1–3 COMPETENCE Standards of Ethical Conduct for Practitioners of management accounting and financial management have responsibility to: Management Accountants • Maintain an appropriate level of professional competence by ongoing development of their knowledge and skills. • Perform their professional duties in accordance with relevant laws, regulations, and technical standards. • Prepare complete and clear reports and recommendations after appropriate analyses of relevant and reliable information. CONFIDENTIALITY Practitioners of management accounting and financial management have responsibility to: • Refrain from disclosing confidential information acquired in the course of their work except when authorized, unless legally obligated to do so. • Inform subordinates as appropriate regarding the confidentiality of information acquired in the course of their work and monitor their activities to assure the maintenance of that confidentiality. • Refrain from using or appearing to use confidential information acquired in the course of their work for unethical or illegal advantage either personally or through third parties. INTEGRITY Practitioners of management accounting and financial management have responsibility to: • Avoid actual or apparent conflicts of interest and advise all appropriate parties of any potential conflict. • Refrain from engaging in any activity that would prejudice their ability to carry out their duties ethically. • Refuse any gift, favor, or hospitality that would influence or would appear to influence their actions. • Refrain from either actively or passively subverting the attainment of the organization’s legitimate and ethical objectives. • Recognize and communicate professional limitations or other constraints that would preclude responsible judgment or successful performance of an activity. • Communicate unfavorable as well as favorable information and professional judgments or opinions. • Refrain from engaging in or supporting any activity that would discredit the profession. OBJECTIVITY Practitioners of management accounting and financial management have responsibility to: • Communicate information fairly and objectively. • Disclose fully all relevant information that could reasonably be expected to influence an intended user’s understanding of the reports, comments, and recommendations presented. SOURCE:http://www.imanet.org/content/Abou...cle_of_Ethics/Ethical-standards.htm. May 1, 2000, 10:30 a.m., State- ments on Management Accounting Number 1C: Standards of Ethical Conduct for Management Accountants(Mont- vale, N.J.: NAA, June 1, 1983). Copyright by Institute of Management Accountants (formerly National Association of Accountants), Montvale, N.J. Chapter 1 Introduction to Cost and Management Accounting in a Global Business Environment 9 Accountants have always been regarded as individuals of conviction, trust, and integrity. The most important of all the standards listed are those designated un- der integrity. These statements reflect honesty of character and embody the essence and intent of U.S. laws and moral codes. Standards of integrity should be foremost in business dealings on individual, group, and corporate levels. To summarize, cost accounting allows organizations to determine a reliable and reasonable measurement of “costs” and “benefits.” These costs and benefits may relate to particular products, customers, divisions, or other objects. Much of this text is dedicated to discussing the various methods, tools, and techniques used in cost accounting. However, before providing that discussion, the balance of this chapter and Chapter 2 provide important descriptive information about trends in business today, as well as information about important practices widely used by managers. This descriptive information will establish a context for understanding the practice of cost accounting in the contemporary organization. One of the big influences on current business practices is globalization. THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT OF BUSINESS Most businesses participate in the global economy, which encompasses the in- 4 ternational trade of goods and services, movement of labor, and flows of capital What factors have influenced and information.4The world has essentially become smaller through improved tech- the globalization of businesses nology and communication abilities as well as trade agreements that promote the and why have these factors international movement of goods and services among countries. Exhibit 1–4 pro- been significant? vides the results of a survey of Fortune 1000 executives about the primary factors global economy that encourage the globalization of business. Currently, the evolution of Web-based technology is dramatically affecting international business. E-Commerce Electronic commerce (e-commerce) is any business activity that uses the Internet e-commerce and World Wide Web to engage in financial transactions. But e-commerce had its beginnings in two important events that occurred before a computer was even developed: (1) the introduction of wireless money transfers in 1871 by Western Union and (2) the introduction in 1914 of the first consumer charge card. These inventions alone, however, were not enough to produce global opportunities for business. EXHIBIT 1–4 Percentage Indicating Factor as Factor Primary in Globalization Trend Factors Driving Business Globalization Technology 43% Competition 29% The Economy 21% Better Communications 17% Need for New Markets/Growth 13% Deregulation 11% Access to Information 9% Legislation 7% Ease of Entering New Market 5% SOURCE:Deloitte & Touche LLP, Survey of American Business Leaders: Information Technology(November 1996), pp. 1–11. Reprinted with permission from Deloitte & Touche. 4Paul Krugman, Peddling Prosperity, quoted by Alan Farnham in “Global—or Just Globaloney,” Fortune (June 27, 1994), p. 98. 10 Part 1 Overview Web sites of manufacturers and retailers worldwide can be accessed by potential customers 24 hours a day. Businesses and consumers can view products and the way they work or fit together on computer or television screens. Cus- tomers can access product information and order and pay for their choices with- out picking up the phone or leaving home or the office. In the world of banking and financial services, bills can be paid, balances accessed, loans and insurance obtained, and stocks traded. Some of the numerous positives and negatives of having e-commerce capa- bility are provided in Exhibit 1–5. In some cases, a seller’s positive may be a buyer’s negative: the ability to accumulate, use, reuse, and instantaneously transmit customer information “can, if not managed carefully, diminish personal privacy.”5 But the current drawbacks to e-commerce will not stop the ever-increasing usage of this sales and purchasing medium. More and more merchants will develop sites that are easy and safe to use by customers but that inhibit hackers from caus- ing internal problems. The rapid expansion of e-commerce illustrates the success of its positives and necessitates the correction of its negatives. Trade Agreements Encouragement of a global economy has been fostered not only by e-commerce but also by government and business leaders worldwide who have made economic economic integration integration a paramount concern. Economic integration refers to creating multi- country markets by developing transnational rules that reduce the fiscal and phys- ical barriers to trade as well as encourage greater economic cooperation among countries. Most economic integration occurs through the institution of trade agreements allowing consumers the opportunity to choose from a significantly larger se- lection of goods than that previously available. Many of these agreements encom- pass a limited number of countries in close geographic proximity, but the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) involves over 100 nations worldwide. Trade agreements have created access to more markets with vast numbers of new customers, new vendor sources for materials and labor, and opportunities for new production operations. In turn, competitive pressures from the need to meet or beat prices and quality of international competitors force organizations to focus on cost control, quality improvements, rapid time-to-market, and dedicated customer service. The accompanying News Note on page 12 reveals an interesting outcome from the North American Free Trade Agreement. As companies become more globally competitive, consumers’ choices are often made on the bases of price, quality, access (time of availability), and design rather than on whether the goods were made domestically or in another country. Globalization Considerations There is no question that globalization is occurring and at a remarkably rapid rate. But operating in foreign markets may create situations that vary dramatically from those found only in domestic markets. Considerations about risk, legal standards, and ethical behaviors can be vastly dissimilar between and among different foreign markets. RISK CONSIDERATIONS Numerous risks exist in any business environment. But when a business decides to enter markets outside its domicile, it needs to carefully evaluate the potential risks. Some of the risks depend on the level of economic development of the country in which operations are being considered; these risks often include political and 5W. J. Clinton and A. Gore, Jr., A Framework for Global Electronic Commerce(http://www.iitf.nist.gov/eleccomm/ecomm.htm, April 4, 1999), p. 12. Chapter 1 Introduction to Cost and Management Accounting in a Global Business Environment 11 EXHIBIT 1–5 Merchant Customer The Realities of E-Commerce Positives: •Convenience No downtime Around-the-clock availability for and Real-time accumulation of customer product information and efficiency and product/service data purchases Ease of updating product/service Access to international merchants information Ease of use Ease of obtaining feedback on Ease of comparison shopping customer satisfaction or Ease of providing feedback providing customer service Ease of gaining information on Comparative ease of business products/services from other start-up companies or individuals Ease of access to new markets Ability to receive instantaneous Ease of instantaneous communication communications from merchants • Cost savings Staff, paperwork, and inventory Access is local rather than reduction long-distance No need for around-the-clock Rapid access to on-line staffing to take orders technical support Less expensive to testmarket new products Lower transaction costs, such as those related to errors or electronic data interchange Wide dissemination of information at nominal incremental cost (after start-up) Inexpensive method of document transfer Ability to use site as an employment recruiting tool Negatives: • Privacy Lack of standardized international Questionable ability to obtain privacy policies redress if personal information Theft of passwords or exploitation is used improperly of unprotected connections to take Theft of passwords, credit over Web sites and corporate card numbers, etc., allowing computers unauthorized purchases • Legality Lack of international laws Questionable ability to governing transactions obtain redress if decisions Questionable ability to ensure are made on inaccurate or intellectual property protection incomplete information Difficulty of assessing compliance with tax regulations in all business jurisdictions • Costs Cost of Web site development Cost of “distraction time” (including need for multiple from Net surfing languages), maintenance, and Possibility of purchasing security (including firewalls from a fraudulent business or and data encryption) a business that will not Potential for internal network correct problems, such as shutdown from e-mail complaints, damaged merchandise such as those related to Possibility of purchasing inappropriate advertising counterfeit goods Losses due to fraudulent sales • Other Potential for sites to be accessed Poor customer service due to by improper parties (e.g., minors) merchant’s inability to Some products/services may be too manage increased e-commerce complex for e-commerce (e.g., Difficulty in using site health care) Difficulty in finding specific site, product, or service