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COPING AND HEALTH NATO CONFERENCE SERIES Ecology II Systems Science III Human Factors IV Marine Sciences V Air-Sea Interactions VI Materials Science III HUMAN FACTORS Volume 1 Monitoring Behavior and Supervisory Control Edited by Thomas B. Sheridan and Gunnar Johannsen Volume 2 Biofeedback and Behavior Edited by Jackson Beatty and Hemer Legewle Volume 3 Vigilance: Theory, Operational Performance, and Physiological Correlates Edited by Robert R. Mackie Volume 4a Recent Advances m the Psychology of Language: Language Development and Mother-Child Interaction Edited by Robin N. Campbell and Philip T. Smith Volume 4b Recent Advances in the Psychology of Language: Formal and Experimental Approaches Edited by Robin N. Campbell and Philip T. Smith Volume 5 Cognitive Psychology and Instruction Edited by Alan M. Lesgold, James W. Pellegrino, Sipke D. Fokkema, and Robert Glaser Volume 6 Language Interpretation and Communication Edited by DaVid Gerver and H. Wallace Sinai ko Volume 7 Alcoholism: New Directions in BehaVioral Research and Treatment Edited by Peter E. Nathan, G. Alan Marlatt, and Tor Leberg Volume 8 Mental Workload: Its Theory and Measurement Edited by Neville Moray Volume 9 Human Evoked Potentials: Applications and Problems Edited by Dietrich Lehmann and Enoch Callaway Volume 10 Human Consequences of Crowding Edited by Mehmet R. Giirkaynak and W. Ayhan LeCompte Volume 11 The Analysis of Social Skill Edited by W. T. Singleton, P. Spurgeon, and R. B. Stammers Volume 12 Coping and Health Edited by Seymour Levine and Holger Ursin COPING AND HEALTH Edited by Seymour Levine Stanford University Medical School Stanford. California and Holger Ursin University of Bergen Bergen. Norway Published in cooperation with NATO Scientific Affain Division PLENUM PRESS· NEW YORK AND LONDON Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Nato Internation Workshop on Coping and Health, Bellagio Study and Conference Center, 1979. Coping and health. (NATO conference series: 111, Human factors; v. 12) Includes index. 1. Adjustment (Psychology)-Congresses. 2. Stress (Psychology)-Congresses. 3. Stress (Physiology)-Congresses. 4. Medicine, Psychosomatic-Congresses. I. Levine, Seymour. 11. Ursin, Holger. 111. Title. IV. Series. [DNLM: 1. Adaptation, Psycholog ical-Congresses. 2. Attitude to health-Congresses. 3. Stress, Psychological-Congress es. W3 N138 v.12 1979/WMl72 N106c 19791 BF335.N37 1979 616.07'1'019 79-28833 ISBN 978-1-4684-1044-0 ISBN 978-1-4684-1042-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4684-1042-6 First Prmtmg - July 1980 Second Printing - August 1981 Proceedings of the NATO International Workshop on Coping and Health, held at the RockefeIler Foundation's Bellagio Study and Conference Center, Bellagio, Italy, March 26-30, 1979. © 1980 Plenum Press, New York Softcover repnnt of the hardcover 1s t edition 1980 A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y.10011 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, mlcrofilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher PREFACE This volume contains fifteen papers by invited participants delivered at the NATO International Workshop on Coping and Health held March 26 through March 30, 1979, at the Rockefeller Foundation's Bellagio study and Conference Center, Bellagio, Italy. The editors of the book were co-directors of the workshop as well as participants. The conference was a small conference consisting of only 20 scientists and was designed to be an intensive period of exchange of ideas dealing with a range of topics varying from experimental models of coping through coping and its psychosomatic implications. The exceptional beauty of the Bellagio Study and Conference Center, the hospitality of the staff at the Conference Center as well as the support of the administrative staff of the Rockefeller Foundation, combined with the intensity and enthusiasm of the participants made the conference a most memorable one for those who attended it. A special thanks is in order for the help and assistance of Dr. B. A. Bayraktar, Executive Officer of Human Factors Program, Scientific Affairs Division, NATO, and Miss Susan Garfield, Program Director of the Rockefeller Foundation. Needless to say, without their participation and help at all points in the organization and planning of this conference, the conference would not have occurred. However, the ultimate success of any conference is based on the activity of the participants and in particular they deserve our very special thanks not only for the excellent presentations and ultimate manuscripts which were prepared, but in their devotion to the task of interchanging ideas on a topic which has both important implications for human function and ultimately profound consequences for a number of pathophysiological states. The ultimate success of any conference can not be determined only by the quality of the volume, but on the impact on future research in a new and important emerging area of behavioral medicine. Seymour Levine, Ph.D. November, 1979 Holger ursin, Ph.D. v CONTENTS Environmental Contingencies as Sources of Stress in Animals . . . • . . • 1 J. Bruce Overmier, Jeff Patterson, and Richard M. Wielkiewicz Psychobiology of Coping in Animals: The Effects of Predictability 39 Joanne Weinberg and Seymour Levine Associative and Non-Associative Mechanisms in the Development of Tolerance for Stress 61 Jeffrey Gray, Susan Owen, Nicola Davis, and Joram Feldon Associative and Non-Associative Mechanisms in the Development of Tolerance for Stress: The Problem of State-Dependent Learning . . . . 83 J.N.P. Rawlins A Coping Model of Mother-Infant Relationships • . . . . . 87 Seymour Levine Contingent Stimulation: A Review of its Role in Early Development .... 101 Megan R. Gunnar Early Adolescence as a Life Stress 121 Beatrix A. Hamburg When is a Little Information a Dangerous Thing? Coping with Stressful Events by Monitoring vs. Blunting •••.••.•. 145 Suzanne M. Miller Managing the Stress of Aging: The Role of Control and Coping • . • • 171 Judith Rodin viii CONTENTS Psychobiological Aspects of Life Stress • • • . . • . . . 203 Marianne Frankenhaeuser Adrenocortical Responses of Humans to Group Hierarchy, Confinement and ......... Social Interaction .....• 225 Joan Vernikos-Daniellis Coping with Mental Work Load 233 G. Mulder and L.J.M. Mulder Personality, Activation and Somatic Health: A New Psychosomatic Theory • . • • . 259 Holger Ursin Gastric Ulceration in the Rat: An Experi mental Approach to Psychosomatics . 281 Robert Murison Coping and Health - A Clinician's Perspective ••..•• 295 John Cullen A Perspective on the Effects of Stress and Coping on Disease and Health . . . • 323 Neal E. Miller Contributors 355 Index .... 359 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTINGENCIES AS SOURCES OF STRESS IN ANIMALS* J. Bruce Overmier, Jeff Patterson and Richard M. Wielkiewicz Dept. of Psychology university of Minnesota Control over one's destiny, knowledge of the "laws of nature", privilege of choice, and freedom from conflict are among the higher values and goals espoused by individuals. Are these values cultur ally determined and uniquely human, or are they rooted in the evol utionary biology of the organism? The latter belief is fostered by continued recognition that learning is an evolutionarilv derived adaptive mechanism (e.g., Spencer, 1855) the raison d'etre of which is to engage behavioral dependencies (control), environmental contingencies (prediction), and behavioral-environmental alterna tives (choices). Averill (1973) and White (1959), recognizing the general adaptive significance of control over the environment, have argued that need for control is a "deep seated" motivational variable of phylogenetic as well as ontogenetic origin. If striving for control, prediction, and choice are emergent properties of basic biological processes, we might well inquire about the pathological consequences for the organism--psychological or physiological--of not having control, of inability to predict, or of the absence of choice. These might be potent sources of stress for man in modern societies which tend toward ever more minute regulation. But how do we assess this within ethical bounds? One tack is to assess these potential sources of stress by means of animal models. The consequences for animals placed in circum stances which deprive them of control, prediction, or choice would be informative to the extent that analogous processes are operative * Thanks are due to Dan Linwick and Marty Wurthman for their assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. 2 J. BRUCE OVERMIER ET AL. in humans. While animal models of behavioral dysfunction have hardly been ignored (e.g., FOx, 1971, Hanin and Usdin, 1977; Keehn, 1979b; Kimmel, 1971; Liddel, 1956; Maser and Seligman, 1977; Masserman, 1943; Serban and Kling, 1976; Zubin and Hunt, 1967), relative to other topics psychologists as a group have neglected the effects of stress on animal behavior, seeking instead to establish the func tional laws relating "normal" behaviors to "normal" variations in environmental conditions. The behaviors we propose to discuss appear maladaptive and dysfunctional and are no doubt statistically deviant and in this sense "abnormal". However, this statistical deviance may often arise from the infrequency with which the necessary environmental conditions are encountered (contra Broadhurst, 1960). They need not be the product of morbid or disordered learning mechanisms, and thus are not "abnormal" in this latter sense (see Kimmel, 1971; Ullman and Krasner, 1969). Both Keehn (1979a) and Davis (1979) have sought to show analytically how the lawful mechanisms of behavior control can trap the organism into bizarre, maladaptive response patterns. The thesis is that such unprofitable behaviors are but the end product of normal processes in special circumstances. The problem is to identify these circumstances. What we seek then are etiological principles governing behavioral and somatic responses in stressful environments. Whereas many searches for animal models of psychopathology focus instead upon congruences of symptoms between animal and man in hopes that such will provide a basis for empirically discovering effective therapeutic techniques, our alternative is to identify causal factors of behavioral dysfunction. Recognition of these not only might allow us to avoid pathogenic circumstances, but may give insight into the operative underlying mechanisms and hence to therapeutic principles. Some have argued against the approach endorsed here (e.g., Sandler, 1972). However, a schema identifying critical characteristics and consequences of psychological stressors would be a powerful heuristic, since even axiomatically incorrect models can be productive (Lehman, 1972). In seeking to identify environmental circumstances stressful to organisms it is necessary to acknowledge the critical role of biological factors as well. Not every instance of the critical environmental circumstances will trap every individual into behav ioral or somatic dysfunction. Just as species constrains the symptoms that can be manifest, so too is the individual's biological state a factor in what symptom, if any, will emerge. Constitutional types have long been recognized in this context (e.g., Corson, 1971; Pavlov, see Gray, 1964). An experiment by Friedman, Ader, and Glasgow (1965) illustrates how environmental circumstances and biological state can interact. CONTINGENCIES AND STRESS 3 Four groups of mice were inoculated with a virus (Coxsackie B) and four groups with vehicle only. On the three days prior to the inoculation the groups had been given one of four treatments: pairings of a signal and a noxious event, presentations of unsig naled noxious events, presentations of the signal only, or simple placement in the experimental chamber. Four days after the injections, susceptibility to the virus as indexed by weight loss was determined. Only one group showed significant weight loss, the virus-inoculated group which had received signaled noxious events; it differed from all others. Thus, neither the environmental treatment nor the pathological agent acting independently was sufficient to cause "disease"; disease only resulted from an inter action between the biological condition (exposure to virus) and environmental circumstances (exposure to signaled noxious event). Further analysis of biological factors involved in responses to stressful circumstances suggests that they can not only affect the consequences of such circumstances but they may serve as one index of their effects as well. That is, the effects of stressful environmental circumstances can be indexed by both somatic and behavioral consequences. One might then inquire as to the relationship between somatic and behavioral effects. Although one might intuitively expect behavioral management of stressors to be reflected in lowered physiological strain (e.g., Ursin, Coover, Kohler, Deryck, Sagvolden and Levine, 1975) and failure of behavioral management to be reflected in greater physiological strain, this need not be so. Indeed, in the "executive monkey" experiments (Brady, porter, Conrad and Mason, 1958), all flaws recognized, subjects that showed behavioral management of the imposed shock schedule also suffered severe physiological symptoms even eventuating in death; their yoked partners which failed behav iorally in the initial sessions showed few physiological symptoms. TABLE 1 FOUR POSSIBLE PATTERNS OF ADJUSTMENT TO STRESSORS Behavioral Responses Successful Abnonnal BehaviOI: Management Normal A. Coping B. Behavioral Strain Physiologic Responses Somatic C. Physiological D. Adaptive Dysfunction Strain Failure
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