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TO JOHN OUTRAM Published in 2011 by Laurence King Publishing Ltd 361–373 City Road London EC1V 1LR Tel +44 20 7841 6900 Fax +44 20 7841 6910 E [email protected] www.laurenceking.com Design copyright © 2010 Laurence King Publishing Limited Text © Robert Holden and Jamie Liversedge Robert Holden and Jamie Liversedge have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs, and Patent Act 1988, to be identified as the Authors of this work. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 185669 708 8 Designed by John Round Design Printed in China Contents INTRODUCTION The vernacular tradition and globalization Sustainability Attitudes to materials A note on standards About this book GENERAL PRINCIPLES Properties of materials Specific gravity Size Strength Optical characteristics Electrical conductivity Color and texture Thermal properties Acoustic properties Deformation Principles of assembly Loads and reactions BUILDING MATERIALS Stone Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic stone Stone finishes and forms Concrete Strength classes Step by step: Constructing a curved cast-in-place concrete retaining wall Waterproof concrete Ecoconcrete Photocatalytic (depolluting) concrete Reinforced concrete Step by step: Constructing GRC rockwork Concrete finishes Stucco Harling Brick Materials used in making bricks Process of manufacture Types of brick The brick-wall bond Paving bonds Mortar Jointing and pointing Laying paving Problems with brickwork Step by step: Constructing an engineering-brick retaining wall Metals Forming and working metals Iron Cast iron Wrought iron Steel Aluminum Copper Zinc Lead Alloys Lumber Types of lumber Step by step: Constructing hardwood lumber decking Sustainability of lumber Strength Moisture content and seasoning Durability and ease of preservation Glass Modern manufacture Applications in external works Polymers (plastics and rubber) Manufacturing and applications Elastomers: rubber and synthetic rubber Toxicity and health concerns associated with plastics and elastomers Environmental concerns Polymer degradation Earth, turf, and non-conventional materials Compressed earth, cob, and pisé Turf and peat walls ELEMENTS Earthworks and topsoil in relation to structures Topsoil Groundwater Protection of trees Bearing capacity of soil Cut and fill Drainage Mounds and landfill Topsoil grading Step by step: Forming a berm using clay subsoil Retaining structures Steps Ramps and ramped steps Introduction to retaining walls Cantilever walls Piled walls Anchored walls (‘tieback’ walls) The ha-ha Soil reinforcement Geotextiles as soil reinforcement Walls Materials used in wall construction Design issues Unit walls Foundations and structure Moisture-proof courses Expansion joints Drystone walls Drystone wall types Paving Foundations Rigid paving Step by step: Rigid paving Unit paving Flexible paving Edge restraint Color in paving Porous paving Drainage Design of paving Step by step: Flexible herringbone paving Dealing with water Introduction to pool construction Informal pools and rigid structures Step by step: Building a rigid pool Step by step: Building a flexibly lined pool Ponds, pools, lakes, canals, basins, and rills Step by step: Constructing a rigid channel Cascades, waterfalls, and weirs ASSEMBLY Fasteners and connections Lumber fixings Mechanical connections Nails Screws Bolts, rivets, and plate connectors Step by step: Assembling a lumber pergola Joints Adhesives Metal fixings Compatability of metals, welding, and brazing Galvanic and electrolytic activity, rusting, and staining Connecting metals Step by step: Steel screen detailing Plastics PROTECTION AND FINISHES Paints Application of paints Paints and environmental concerns Protection of metals Protection of lumber Wood preservatives Varnish Protection of masonry Endnotes Glossary Further reading Useful websites Appendix of tables Index Picture credits Authors’ acknowledgments Introduction ”Each nation, in short, has its own way of building, according to the materials afforded and the habits of the country.” Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, De Architectura, Book II, Chapter 1 The vernacular tradition and globalization Traditionally, building materials were those found locally—so in forest areas, timber was used. When forests were cleared stone was quarried or clay was dug to make bricks or earth was used to make dried mud structures. This tradition of using locally available materials continues in many areas today. In mountain regions, such as the Lake District or North Wales, the whole built environment can be made predominantly of one material – such as slate, which could be used for walls, paving, roofs and, in crushed form, as roadstone. Slate was even occasionally used for coffins.