Conservation of Living Nature and Resources: Problems, Trends, and Prospects

275 Pages·1991·5.891 MB·English

by  Professor Dr. Alexey V. Yablokov, Dr. Sergey A. Ostroumov (auth.)

AY.Yablokov S.A.Ostroumov
Conservation
of Living Nature
and Resources:
Problems, Trends, and Prospects
With 36 Figures and 34 Tables
Springer-Verlag·
Berlin Heidelberg New York
London Paris Tokyo
Hong Kong Barcelona
Budapest
Professor Dr. Alexey V. Yablokov
USSR Supreme Soviet
Committee of Ecology
Moscow, Kremlin, USSR
Dr. Sergey A. Ostroumov
Department of H ydrobiology
Faculty of Biology
Moscow State University
Moscow 119899, USSR
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-75378-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-75376-3
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-75376-3
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Yablokov, A.V. (Aleksei Vladimirovich) Conservation of living nature and resources: problems,
trends, and prospects I A.V. Yablokov, S.A. Ostroumov, p. em. Translation based on two works
published by the authors in Russian. Includes bibliographical references and index. Romanized
record.
1. Biological diversity conservation. 2. Wildlife conservation. I. Ostroumov, Sergei Andreevich. II.
Title. QH75.IlS 1991 333.9Sl6-dc20 90-23470 CIP
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Preface
This book is based on our two books, published in the USSR and
translated in a number of other countries Conservation of living
nature: problems andp erspectives (1983) and The levels ofc onservation
of living nature (1985). It differs from the vast majority of the
numerous books on conservation and environment, which are mainly
devoted either to specific problems of conservation of certain taxons,
or to problems of conservation of prescribed regions, or to general
issues of environmental conservation in toto, while the problems of
the conservation of living nature are represented only to a small
degree.
Our book is one of the volumes - at present not numerous - that
place a high value on the diversity ofliving nature as the basis for the
existence and development of mankind on the Earth. Living nature,
besides its own intrinsic value, at all times was, is now and will ever
remain the sole, unique and indispensable resource and provider for
mankind.
This book is an attempt to analyze the key problems and per
spectives of living resource conservation in a non-traditional way. As
the main approach we have considered the problems not only ac
cording to taxons and types of biomes but also according to the levels
oflife systems and the factors of man-made influences on nature, and
in addition from economical, administrative, managerial and other
viewpoints. This many-sided, pluralistic approach reflects the com
plex, interdepartmental, intertwined character of the many knotty
questions ofc onservation of living nature; any analysis of them based
on a more restricted approach is usually inadequately one-sided and
shallow.
After an appraisal of the present state, we attempt to look into the
near future, to decide how best to be ready to meet this future, from
the viewpoint of solving the most urgent conservation problems.
We hope that all readers - from beginner to specialist, from
college student to practitioner - will find something interesting and
useful in the approach and data that we present here. For this reason
the book is addressed not only to biologists, ecologists, conserva-
VI Preface
tionists and environmentalists, but also to all who deal with the
resources of living nature: those who are involved in agriculture,
forestry, fishery, in environmental law and management. The book is
also written as a potentially useful source of data and ideas for
economists, lawers and decision-makers. The authors also have tried
to meet the interests of physicians and those who represent the health
sciences. In addition, we think that the book may be ofinterestto those
dealing with conservation issues on the political or international level.
We have used data ofv ast geographical scope. We have based our
analysis on the data closest to us concerning the USSR, and have
included also broad information on conservation from Europe and
North America, as well as Asia, South America, Africa, Australia and
Oceania. While writing the book, we bore in mind our purpose of
finding readers in these regions, to whom the book - as we hope - will
be interesting and useful for success in conservation work.
During our work we have benefited from advice and material
from many colleagues, among them: A.S. Antonov, V.N. Maximov,
M.M. Telitchenko (Moscow State University), E.V. Gvozdev
(Institute of Zoology, Alma-Ata), the late B.N. Veprintzev (Institute
of Biophysics, Puschchino), the late G.G. Vinberg (Zoological In
stitute, Leningrad), V.N. Bolshakov (Institute of Ecology of Plants
and Animals, Sverdlovsk), G.A. Zavarzin (Institute of Microbiology,
Moscow), S.G. Priklonsky (Oksky Reserve, Rjazan Region), LA.
Rapoport (Institute of Chemical Physics, Moscow), N.F. Reimers
(Institute of Mathematical Economics, Moscow), T.B. Sablina and
N.N. Smirnov (Institute of Evolutional Morphology and Ecology,
Moscow), L.M. Suschchenja (Institute of Zoology and Parasitology,
Minsk), V.E. Flint and M.V. Cherkasova (Institute of Nature Con
servation, Moscow), F.R. Shtilmark (Moscow) and N.N. Schcherbak
(Institute of Zoology, Kiev). We also thank our colleagues in other
countries: W. Klawe (Interamerican Tuna Tropical Commission,
USA), C. Stivens (Animal Welfare Institute, USA), J. Barzdo (IUCN
Conservation Monitoring Centre, England), H. Hekstra (European
Information Centre for Nature Conservation, Strasburg), M. Soule
(Michigan State University, USA), D. Simberloff (Florida State
University, USA), P. Raven (Missouri Botanical Garden, USA), M.
Pavan (Pavia University, Italy), Norman Myers (England), Verne
Grant (Texas State University, USA), W.F. Perrin (Southwest Fi
sheries Research Center, USA), L. Godicl (Maribor University,
Yugoslavia), Heinrich Walter (University of Hohenheim, FRG),
R.W. Risebourgh (The Bodega Bay Institute, USA), A. Haga
(Universitetet i Oslo, Norway), J.P. Raffin (Federation Fran~aise des
Societes de Protection de la Nature), Y. Fujimaki (Obihiro Univer
sity, Japan), B. Stugren (Romania).
Preface VII
To all of them we express our gratitude. We acknowledge also the
help of Springer-Verlag, who stimulated the creation of this book and
made it available for a broad audience of English-speaking readers.
The book is a result of the joint work of both authors. Chapters 3,
4, 6, 7, 10, 11 were written mainly by A.V. Yablokov (with the
exception ofs everal sections), Chapters 1,2,5 and 8 and some sections
in Chapters 3, 4 mainly by S.A. Ostroumov and Chapters 9 and 12
jointly by both co-authors.
Chapters 1, 2, 5 (except for some sections), 8, as well as the
Preface, Introduction and some tables were translated into English by
SA. Ostroumov. Chapters 3, 4 and some sections of Chapter 5 were
translated by A.S. Vinogradov, and the remaining Chapters by S.V.
Ponomarenko. The English translation oft he text has been edited and
corrected in part by S.A. Ostroumov.
In such a dynamic field as conservation, the situation is changing
very rapidly and hence it cannot be excluded that in some cases we
were compelled to use information that was either partly out-of-date
or not complete. The authors are grateful for all constructive and
critical suggestions and comments.
Moscow, January 1991 A.V. Yablokov
S.A. Ostroumov
Contents
Introduction .......................................... 1
Part I
1 The Dangerous Extent of Human Impact
on the Biosphere ................................ 7
1.1 Use and Transformation of Land Surface ........... 7
1.2 Exploitation of Natural Resources
and Pollution of the Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Molecular-Genetic Level ......................... 18
2.1 Effects on Structural and Functional Systems
of the Cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Biotransformation and Biodegradation of Pollutants .. 31
3 Problems at the Ontogenetic Level ................. 39
3.1 Changes in Embryogenesis. .. . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. 39
3.2 Disturbance of Growth .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 41
3.3 Disturbance of Reproduction .. .. . .... . . . .. . .. ... .. 43
3.4 Metabolic Disturbances, Poisoning and Diseases ..... 46
3.5 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
·4 Problems at the Species-Population Level ........... 59
4.1 General Characteristics of Species Disappearance .... 59
4.2 Causes of Species Disappearance .................. 73
4.3 Importance of the Minimal Number of the Population 96
4.4 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5 Problems at the Ecosystem Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
5.1 Changes in Ecosystem Structure ................... 99
5.2 Disturbance oflnterspecies Interactions. . . . . . . . . . . .. 101
5.3 Breakage oflnformation Flows in Ecosystems ........ 104
x
Contents
5.4 Destruction of Vegetation Cover in Toto ............ 105
5.5 Transfer of Toxic Substances by Migrating Animals ... 106
5.6 Bioaccumulation of Pollutants
and Their Transfer Through Trophic Chains . . . . . . . .. 106
5.7 Acid Precipitations .............................. 109
5.8 Changes in Primary Productivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 110
5.9 Conservation Problems
in Some Important Ecosystems .................... 112
5.10 Conclusions .................................... 129
6 Economic Problems
in the Protection of Living Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131
7 Organizational and Legal Problems
of the Protection of Living Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135
7.1 Problems to Be Treated on an International Level .... 135
7.2 Problems to Be Treated on a National Level ......... 139
8 Problems of Prognostication ...................... 142
8.1 Molecular Level ................................. 142
8.2 Onthogenetic Level .............................. 143
8.3 Populations and Species Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 144
8.4 Ecosystem and Biosphere Levels ................... 146
8.5 Forecasts of the Ecological Consequences
of a Nuclear War .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149
Partll
Prospects for the Protection of Living Nature .............. 152
9 Protection of Living Nature
and its Connection with Other Global Problems 153
9.1 "Nuclear Winter" and Disarmament ............... 153
9.2 Demographic Problem and Need for Stabilization .... 154
9.3 Reduction of the Biosphere Pollution Rate .......... 154
10 Need for Ecologization of Society's Activities ........ 157
10.1 Need for Eco1ogization of Agriculture .............. 157
10.2 Need for Ecologization
of the Economic Forms of Biosphere Utilization ...... 161
10.3 Need for Eco1ogization ofIndustry and Transport .... 166
10.4 Need for Eco1ogization of the Economy . . . . . . . . . . . .. 170
10.5 Need for Ecologization of the Urban Environment. . .. 174
10.6 Need for Ecologization of Medicine ................ 179
10.7 Need for Ecologization of Politics and Law .......... 182
Contents XI
11 Ways of Preserving Living Nature .................. 185
11.1 Protection in Natural Habitats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 187
11.2 Captive Breeding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 195
11.3 Domestication and Cultivation .................... 200
11.4 Ecological Engineering ........... ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 204
11.5 Genetic Banks .................................. 208
11.6 Regulated Evolution ............................. 210
12 Scientific Foundations and Theory
of Living Nature Protection
Within the System of Biological Science ............ 213
12.1 Biological Sciences and the Scientific Foundations
of Living Nature Protection ....................... 213
12.2 Axiomatization of the Theoretical Foundations
of Living Nature Protection ....................... 218
12.3 Conclusion ..................................... 221
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 227
Index of Authors ...................................... 249
Subject Index ......................................... 253
Introduction
The 20th century has confronted mankind with many dramatic problems, and the
problem of environment deterioration has now become one of the most serious
among them. We have not paid sufficient attention to the global long-term
consequences of our activities and as a result, our impact on the planet is now so
substantial that the vitally important conditions of our existence are being
affected and are deteriorating: mankind is faced with a shortage of clean air to
breath, a deficiency of unpolluted food to eat, and the absence of the clean water
needed to drink.
Increasing global problems - hunger and desertification, depletion of na
tural resources and deficiency of energy, pollution and man-triggered changes of
climate -lead to a better understanding by Man of his dependent position in the
Earth's biosphere.
Many of us suffer from the oversimplified illusion that this dependence is
obvious and easily understood, and that it is sufficient to respond to environ
mental problems merely by constructing better waste treatment plants (to have
clean air and clean water), by removing mountains of wastes (to have more room
for life and recreation), and so on.
However, in reality all this is not sufficient because our dependency upon the
biosphere is broader and deeper, and we depend irrevocably upon the diversity
of forms of living nature. This is not fully realized by many of us - with the
exception of a few biologists. Thus we begin our book with a brief enumeration
of the main reasons which make the conservation ofliving nature so important
no less important than, for instance, the solution of the problems of energy
resources.
1. Both the formation and maintenance of the gaseous composition of the air
are sustained by living components of the biosphere: primarily by plants and
microorganisms, and to a lesser extent by other living beings. Thus, the oxygen so
essential for us is being produced by green plants, including forests - boreal,
temperate and tropical - and phytoplankton.
2. Soil fertility - one of the essentials for the existence of mankind - is fully
determined by the life activities of a great many living creatures in the soil:
invertebrates, fungi, bacteria, algae. The number of bacterial cells may reach
several tens of billions per 1 g of soil. The total length of fungal mycelium may