Conductive Polymers and Their Composites

351 Pages·2022·7.778 MB·English

by  Yanmin Wang, Wei Feng

Yanmin Wang
Wei Feng
Conductive
Polymers
and Their
Composites
Conductive Polymers and Their Composites
·
Yanmin Wang Wei Feng
Conductive Polymers
and Their Composites
Yanmin Wang Wei Feng
College of Material Science School of Materials Science
and Engineering and Engineering
Shandong University of Science Tianjin University
and Technology Tianjin, China
Qingdao, China
ISBN 978-981-19-5362-0 ISBN 978-981-19-5363-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5363-7
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022
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Contents
1 Introduction of Conductive Polymers ............................ 1
1.1 Electrical Properties ....................................... 1
1.1.1 Doping of Conductive Polymers ..................... 3
1.1.2 Temperature Dependence ........................... 3
1.1.3 Charge Carrier Transport Models ..................... 7
1.1.4 Multiscale Charge Transport ......................... 8
1.1.5 Multilevel Investigation of Charge Transport ........... 11
1.1.6 Effect of Film Morphology on the Charge Transport .... 12
1.1.7 Opportunities for Improving Charge Transport ......... 16
1.2 Electrochemical Properties .................................. 16
1.2.1 Reversible Oxidation/Reduction ..................... 16
1.2.2 Pseudocapacitance ................................. 17
1.2.3 Electrochromism .................................. 20
1.3 Wettability of Conductive Polymers .......................... 22
1.3.1 Formation of Soluble Polymers ...................... 22
1.3.2 Formation of Micro-/Nanostructures in Solution
by Self-Assembly .................................. 23
1.3.3 Use of Hydrophobic Doping Ions .................... 24
1.3.4 Grafting of Substituent on the Monomer Before
Polymerization .................................... 25
1.3.5 Vapor-Phase Polymerization ......................... 25
1.4 Polyacetylene ............................................. 26
1.4.1 Properties and Structure ............................ 26
1.4.2 Polyacetylene Synthesis ............................ 27
1.5 Polythiophene ............................................ 27
1.5.1 Properties and Structure ............................ 27
1.5.2 Compound ........................................ 28
1.6 Polypyrrole ............................................... 30
1.7 Polyaniline ............................................... 30
References ..................................................... 31
v
vi Contents
2 Preparation of Conductive Polymers ............................. 33
2.1 Electrochemical Polymerization ............................. 33
2.1.1 Principles of Electrochemical Polymerization
of Aromatic Monomers ............................. 34
2.1.2 2D Conductive Polymers Prepared
by Electrochemical Polymerization ................... 36
2.2 Photopolymerization ....................................... 37
2.2.1 Photopolymerizations Leading to CPs ................ 37
2.3 Direct Arylation Polymerization ............................. 39
2.3.1 Direct Arylation Polycondensation (DArP) ............ 39
2.3.2 Oxidative Direct Arylation Polymerization
(Oxi-DArP) ....................................... 42
2.3.3 Mechanisms of Direct (Hetero)arylation Reactions ..... 44
2.4 Acyclic Diene Metathesis (ADMET) Polymerization ........... 46
2.5 Biocatalytic Synthesis ...................................... 48
2.6 Vapor Phase Oxidative Synthesis ............................ 51
2.6.1 Vapor Phase Polymerization (VPP) ................... 51
2.6.2 Oxidative Chemical Vapor Deposition ................ 58
2.7 Catalyst-Transfer Polycondensation .......................... 60
2.7.1 Choice of Functional Groups and Crosscoupling ....... 61
2.7.2 Choice of Transition Metal Catalyst .................. 62
2.7.3 New Monomers and Catalysts for CTP ................ 67
2.8 Controlled Polymerization .................................. 67
2.8.1 Polyphenylenes .................................... 68
2.8.2 Polythiophenes .................................... 68
References ..................................................... 69
3 Nanostructured Conductive Polymers ............................ 71
3.1 Synthesis of Nanostructured Conductive Polymers ............. 71
3.1.1 Fabrication of Conductive Polymer Nanoparticles ...... 71
3.1.2 Template-Based Approaches ........................ 77
3.1.3 Template-Free Approaches .......................... 82
3.1.4 Electrosynthesis ................................... 87
3.2 Conductive Polymer Nanostructure with Different
Dimensions ............................................... 91
3.2.1 Conductive Polymer Nanoparticles ................... 91
3.2.2 One-Dimensional Conductive Polymers ............... 92
3.2.3 Conductive Polymer Nanowire Arrays ................ 95
References ..................................................... 100
4 Conductive Polymer Composites ................................. 103
4.1 Conductive Polymer–Noble Metal Nanoparticle
Hybrids/Composites ....................................... 103
4.1.1 CP and NMNP Composites ......................... 105
4.1.2 CPs and Noble Metal Ions ........................... 106
4.1.3 Monomers and NMNPs ............................. 110
Contents vii
4.1.4 Monomers and Noble Metal Ions ..................... 112
4.2 Conductive Polymers/Zeolite (Nano-)Composites .............. 114
4.2.1 Preparation Methods of Conductive
Polymers/Zeolite (Nano-)Composites ................. 115
4.2.2 Polyaniline/Zeolite (Nano-)Composites ............... 115
4.2.3 Polypyrrole/Zeolite (Nano-)Composites ............... 116
4.2.4 Polythiophene/Zeolite (Nano-)Composites ............. 117
4.2.5 Other Conductive Polymers/Zeolite (Nano-)
Composites ....................................... 117
4.3 Conductive Polymers/Graphene Composites .................. 117
4.4 Conductive Polymer Nanocomposites ........................ 120
4.4.1 Application of Conductive Polymer Nanocomposite .... 121
4.4.2 Nanocomposites Based on Conductive Polymers
and Carbon Nanotubes .............................. 125
4.4.3 Conductive Polymer/Clay Nanocomposites ............ 131
4.4.4 Conductive Polymer/Nanodiamond
Nanocomposites ................................... 133
4.4.5 Electrode Materials Based on Conductive
Polymers/Metal Nanocomposites ..................... 135
4.4.6 Nanocomposites Based on Graphene Analogous
Materials and Conductive Polymers .................. 139
4.5 Conductive Polymer Reinforced Polyurethane Composites ...... 146
4.5.1 EMI Shielding ..................................... 147
4.5.2 Sensors ........................................... 148
4.5.3 Biomedical ....................................... 148
4.5.4 Shape Memory Polymer ............................ 149
4.5.5 Membrane ........................................ 149
4.5.6 Anticorrosive Coatings ............................. 149
4.5.7 Films ............................................ 150
4.5.8 Foams ............................................ 150
References ..................................................... 150
5 Conductive Polymers and Their Composites for Biological
Application .................................................... 153
5.1 Biocompatibility of Conductive Polymers ..................... 155
5.2 Conductive Polymers for Tissue Engineering .................. 156
5.2.1 Polyaniline in Tissue Engineering .................... 156
5.2.2 Polypyrrole in Tissue Engineering .................... 157
5.2.3 Polythiophenes in Tissue Engineering ................. 159
5.2.4 Fabrication of Conductive Biomaterials for Tissue
Engineering ....................................... 160
5.2.5 Conducting Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering ......... 162
5.2.6 Conductive Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue
Engineering ....................................... 162
viii Contents
5.2.7 Conductive Biomaterials for Various Tissue
Engineering Applications ........................... 166
5.2.8 Modification of Conductive Polymers for Tissue
Engineering Applications ........................... 169
5.2.9 Biomimetic Conductive Polymer-Based Tissue
Scaffolds ......................................... 170
5.3 Artificial Muscles: State of the Art ........................... 174
5.3.1 Electrochemomechanical and Electromechanical
Muscles: Electroactive Polymer Actuators ............. 175
5.3.2 Bending and Linear Electrochemomechanical
Artificial Muscles .................................. 175
5.4 Computer/Neuron Dialog: Artificial Synapses ................. 179
5.5 Conductive Polymers in Bioelectronics ....................... 180
5.5.1 Molecular Bioelectronics ........................... 180
5.5.2 Selected Application of CPs in Bioelectronics .......... 180
5.6 Conductive Polymers for Drug Delivery ...................... 181
5.6.1 Neuromodulatory Ions and Neurotransmitters .......... 183
5.6.2 Drug Loading ..................................... 185
5.6.3 Drug Release from CPs ............................. 189
5.7 Biodegradable and Electrically Conductive Polymers
for Biomedical Applications ................................ 191
5.8 Engineering Antifouling Conductive Polymers for Modern
Biomedical Applications ................................... 194
5.8.1 In Vivo Electrochemical Biosensing with High
Sensitivity ........................................ 195
5.8.2 Controlled Cell Capture and Release .................. 196
5.9 3D Scaffolds Based on Conductive Polymers for Biomedical
Applications .............................................. 198
5.9.1 Tissue Engineering ................................. 198
5.9.2 Electric Stimulation ................................ 199
5.9.3 Drug Delivery ..................................... 199
5.9.4 Biosensing ........................................ 200
5.10 Erodible and Electrically Conductive Polymers ................ 200
5.11 Current Stage and Challenges ............................... 201
References ..................................................... 202
6 Energy Technology Based on Conductive Polymers ................ 205
6.1 Conductive Polymer-Based Supercapacitor .................... 205
6.1.1 Polyaniline-Based Supercapacitor .................... 207
6.1.2 Polypyrrole-Based Supercapacitor .................... 209
6.1.3 Thiophene-Based Conductive Polymers
for Supercapacitor ................................. 210
6.1.4 Comparison with Other Types of Supercapacitor
Materials ......................................... 212
Contents ix
6.1.5 Multidimensional Performance Optimization
of Conductive Polymer-Based Supercapacitor
Electrodes ........................................ 212
6.1.6 Nanostructured Conductive Polymers
for Supercapacitor ................................. 217
6.1.7 Flexible Supercapacitors from CP-Based Hydrogels .... 218
6.1.8 Conductive Polymer Composites for Supercapacitor .... 221
6.1.9 Present Efforts and Future Developments .............. 237
6.2 Conductive Polymer-Based Solar Cells ....................... 241
6.2.1 Molecular Engineering (Backbone, Substituents,
and Side Chains) ................................... 243
6.2.2 Polymer Engineering ............................... 246
6.2.3 Conductive Polymers as Hole Transporting
Materials for Solar Cells ............................ 246
6.2.4 Solution-Processable Conductive Polymers
as Anode Interfacial Layer Materials for Organic
Solar Cells ........................................ 249
6.2.5 Conductive Polymers as Electrodes for OSC
Devices .......................................... 254
6.2.6 Conducting Polymer-Based Anode Buffer Layers
in Solar Cells ...................................... 255
6.2.7 Conductive Polymer: Fullerene-Based Solar Cells ...... 256
6.2.8 Conductive Polymers for Flexible Solar Cells .......... 260
6.3 Thermoelectric Generator .................................. 264
6.4 Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) ................................ 266
6.5 Fuel Cells ................................................ 266
6.5.1 Utilization of Conductive Polymers in Fabricating
Polymer Electrolyte Membranes (PEMs) for Direct
Methanol Fuel Cells ................................ 266
6.5.2 Aromatic Conductive Polymers-Based Catalyst
Supporting Matrices for Microbial Fuel Cells .......... 269
References ..................................................... 271
7 Conductive Polymers-Based Sensors ............................. 275
7.1 Sensors Based on Conductive Polymers ...................... 276
7.1.1 PANI-Based Sensors ............................... 277
7.1.2 PEDOT-Based Sensors ............................. 280
7.2 Processing of Conductive Polymers for Sensor Applications ..... 280
7.2.1 Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) Films ...................... 281
7.2.2 Layer-by-Layer (LbL) Self-Assembly Technique ....... 281
7.2.3 Other Processing Techniques ........................ 282
7.3 Various Types of CP-Based Sensors .......................... 282
7.3.1 Conductometric Sensors ............................ 282
7.3.2 Gravimetric Sensors ................................ 283
7.3.3 Optical Sensors .................................... 284
x Contents
7.3.4 Fluorescence-Based Sensors ......................... 284
7.4 Properties of Conductive Polymer Hydrogels and Their
Application in Sensors ..................................... 285
7.4.1 Conductive Polymer Hydrogels (CPHs) for Sensors ..... 285
7.4.2 Application of CP Hydrogel on Sensors ............... 285
7.5 Conductive Polymer Composites for Sensing Applications ...... 291
7.5.1 PANI Composites for Sensors ....................... 291
7.5.2 PPy Composites for Sensors ......................... 295
7.5.3 PEDOT:PSS Composite ............................ 297
7.5.4 Refined Chemical Sensor Systems Based
on Conductive Polymer/Cyclodextrin Hybrids .......... 298
7.6 Chemical Sensors Based on Conductive Polymers .............. 303
7.6.1 Chemiresistors .................................... 304
7.6.2 Chemically Sensitive FETs .......................... 304
7.6.3 Capacitors and Diodes .............................. 305
7.6.4 Future Trends ..................................... 305
7.7 Application of Conductive Polymers on Biosensors ............ 306
7.7.1 Biosensors Utilizing the Effective Energy Transfer
of CPs ............................................ 307
7.7.2 Biosensors Utilizing the Conformational Changes
of CPs ............................................ 307
7.7.3 Organic Biosensors ................................ 308
7.7.4 Doped CP-Based Biosensors ........................ 310
7.7.5 Conductive Polymer-Based Electrochemical
Biosensors ........................................ 311
7.7.6 Conductive Polymer Nanostructures for Biosensors ..... 315
7.7.7 Biosensors Based on Conductive Polymer Films
with Nanofeatures ................................. 320
7.7.8 Biosensors Based on Conductive Polymer
Nanostructures .................................... 323
7.7.9 Biosensor Based on Conductive Polymer Hydrogel ..... 325
7.7.10 Conductive Polymer Composites
to Electrochemical Biosensors ....................... 327
7.7.11 Application of Conductive Polymer Biosensor ......... 338
7.8 Gas Sensor Based on Conductive Polymers ................... 343
7.9 Perspectives .............................................. 344
7.9.1 All-Solid-State Sensors ............................. 344
7.9.2 Flexible Sensors ................................... 345
7.9.3 Stretchable Sensors ................................ 345
7.9.4 Highly Sensitive Sensors ............................ 345
7.9.5 Highly Selective Sensors ............................ 346
References ..................................................... 346