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Computer Security and Cryptography PDF

541 Pages·2007·8.879 MB·English
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COMPUTER SECURITY AND CRYPTOGRAPHY ALAN G. KONHEIM COMPUTER SECURITY AND CRYPTOGRAPHY COMPUTER SECURITY AND CRYPTOGRAPHY ALAN G. KONHEIM AbouttheCover:Thetermcipheralphabetisusedwhenreferringtoamonoalphabeticsubstitution.Whentext iswrittenusingthelettersA, B,...,Z,acipheralphabetisapermutationorrearrangementofthe26letters. Inthefifteenthcentury,cryptographybecamemoresophisticatedandcryptographersproposedusingmultiple cipheralphabets,aprocessreferredtoaspolyalphabeticsubstitution.BlaisedeVigene`re’sbookATreatiseon SecretWritingpublishedinthesixteenthcenturycontainsthebasicVigene`retableux,specifyingtheciphertext inpolyalphabeticsubstitution.Rotormachinesintroducedinthe20th-centuryprovidedmechanicalmeansfor implementingandspeedinguppolyalphabeticsubstitution. Thecoverisamodifiedsetof17cipheralphabets;theblackbackgroundcolorissymbolicoftheU.S.State Department’sBlackChamberinwhichAmericancryptanalysisoriginatedintheearlypartofthe20th-century. Itistechnicallydefectiveinseveralaspects(i)fewerthan26lettersineachrowaredisplayedand(ii)repeated lettersoccurintherowscontainingthewordCRYPTOGRAPHYandmyname. Nevertheless,thecoverhopefullyprojectsthemessagetoreadComputerSecurityandCryptography. Copyright#2007byJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Allrightsreserved PublishedbyJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,Hoboken,NewJersey PublishedsimultaneouslyinCanada Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyform orbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,scanning,orotherwise,exceptas permittedunderSection107or108ofthe1976UnitedStatesCopyrightAct,withouteithertheprior writtenpermissionofthePublisher,orauthorizationthroughpaymentoftheappropriateper-copyfeetothe CopyrightClearanceCenter,Inc.,222RosewoodDrive,Danvers,MA01923,(978)750-8400,fax(978) 750-4470,oronthewebatwww.copyright.com.RequeststothePublisherforpermissionshouldbe addressedtothePermissionsDepartment,JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,111RiverStreet,Hoboken,NJ07030, (201)748-6011,fax(201)748-6008,oronlineathttp://www.wiley.com/go/permission. LimitofLiability/DisclaimerofWarranty:Whilethepublisherandauthorhaveusedtheirbesteffortsin preparingthisbook,theymakenorepresentationsorwarrantieswithrespecttotheaccuracyor completenessofthecontentsofthisbookandspecificallydisclaimanyimpliedwarrantiesof merchantabilityorfitnessforaparticularpurpose.Nowarrantymaybecreatedorextendedbysales representativesorwrittensalesmaterials.Theadviceandstrategiescontainedhereinmaynotbesuitable foryoursituation.Youshouldconsultwithaprofessionalwhereappropriate.Neitherthepublishernor authorshallbeliableforanylossofprofitoranyothercommercialdamages,includingbutnotlimitedto special,incidental,consequential,orotherdamages. Forgeneralinformationonourotherproductsandservicesorfortechnicalsupport,pleasecontactour CustomerCareDepartmentwithintheUnitedStatesat(800)762-2974,outsidetheUnitedStatesat(317) 572-3993orfax(317)572-4002. Wileyalsopublishesitsbooksinavarietyofelectronicformats.Somecontentthatappearsinprintmay notbeavailableinelectronicformats.FormoreinformationaboutWileyproducts,visitourwebsiteat www.wiley.com. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData: Konheim,AlanG.,1934– Computersecurity&cryptography / byAlanG.Konheim. p.cm. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN-13:978-0-471-94783-7 ISBN-10:0-471-94783-0 1.Computersecurity. 2.Cryptography. I.Title. QA76.9.A25K6382007 005.8--dc22 2006049338 PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 CONTENTS FOREWORD ix 3.4 Thex2-TestofaHypothesis 67 PREFACE xi 3.5 PruningfromtheTableofIsomorphs 68 ABOUT THE AUTHOR xvii 3.6 PartialMaximumLikelihoodEstimation ofaMonoalphabeticSubstitution 73 3.7 TheHiddenMarkovModel(HMM) 78 3.8 HillEnciphermentofASCIIN-Grams 90 CHAPTER1 APERITIFS 3.9 GaussianElimination 102 3.10 MonoalphabeticSubstitutionProblems 111 1.1 TheLexiconofCryptography 1 1.2 CryptographicSystems 4 1.3 Cryptanalysis 4 CHAPTER4 POLYALPHABETIC 1.4 SideInformation 6 SUBSTITUTION 1.5 ThomasJeffersonandtheM-94 6 4.1 RunningKeys 116 1.6 CryptographyandHistory 7 4.2 BlaisedeVigene`re 117 1.7 CryptographyandComputers 8 4.3 GilbertS.Vernam 117 1.8 TheNationalSecurityAgency 9 4.4 TheOne-TimePad 119 1.9 TheGiants 10 1.10 NoSex,Money,Crimeor...Love 12 4.5 FindingtheKeyofVernam–Vigene`re CiphertextwithKnownPeriodby 1.11 AnExampleoftheInferenceProcess Correlation 120 inCryptanalysis 13 4.6 Coincidence 124 1.12 Warning! 15 4.7 Venona 127 4.8 PolyalphabeticSubstitution CHAPTER2 COLUMNARTRANSPOSITION Problems 132 2.1 Shannon’sClassificationofSecrecy Transformations 18 CHAPTER5 STATISTICALTESTS 2.2 TheRulesofColumnarTransposition 5.1 WeaknessesinaCryptosystem 136 Encipherment 18 5.2 TheKolmogorov–SmirnovTest 136 2.3 Cribbing 21 5.3 NIST’sProposedStatisticalTests 138 2.4 ExamplesofCribbing 25 5.4 Diagnosis 139 2.5 PlaintextLanguageModels 30 5.5 StatisticalTestsProblems 143 2.6 Countingk-Grams 33 2.7 DerivingtheParametersofaMarkov ModelfromSlidingWindowCounts 34 CHAPTER6 THEEMERGENCEOFCIPHER 2.8 MarkovScoring 34 MACHINES 2.9 TheADFGVXTranspositionSystem 47 2.10 CODA 49 6.1 TheRotor 150 2.11 ColumnarTranspositionProblems 50 6.2 RotorSystems 152 6.3 RotorPatents 153 6.4 ACharacteristicPropertyofConjugacy 155 CHAPTER3 MONOALPHABETIC 6.5 Analysisofa1-RotorSystem: SUBSTITUTION CiphertextOnly 156 3.1 MonoalphabeticSubstitution 63 6.6 TheDisplacementSequenceofa 3.2 Caesar’sCipher 65 Permutation 158 3.3 CribbingUsingIsomorphs 66 6.7 ArthurScherbius 160 v vi CONTENTS 6.8 EnigmaKeyDistributionProtocol 163 9.7 IsDESaRandomMapping? 297 6.9 CryptanalysisoftheEnigma 166 9.8 DESintheOutput-FeedbackMode(OFB) 299 6.10 CribbingEnigmaCiphertext 167 9.9 CryptanalysisofDES 300 6.11 TheLorenzSchlu¨sselzusatz 170 9.10 DifferentialCryptanalysis 302 6.12 TheSZ40PinWheels 171 9.11 TheEFSDES-Cracker 308 6.13 SZ40CryptanalysisProblems 175 9.12 WhatNow? 311 6.14 CribbingSZ40Ciphertext 176 9.13 TheFutureAdvancedDataEncryption Standard 312 9.14 AndtheWinnerIs! 312 CHAPTER7 THEJAPANESECIPHER 9.15 TheRijndaelOperations 314 MACHINES 9.16 TheRijndaelCipher 323 9.17 Rijndael’sStrength:Propagationof 7.1 JapaneseSignalingConventions 191 Patterns 323 7.2 Half-Rotors 191 9.18 WhenisaProductBlock-CipherSecure?326 7.3 ComponentsoftheREDMachine 193 9.19 GeneratingtheSymmetricGroup 327 7.4 CribbingREDCiphertext 200 9.20 AClassofBlockCiphers 329 7.5 GeneralizedVowelsandConsonants 209 9.21 TheIDEABlockCipher 332 7.6 “ClimbMountItaka” – War! 210 7.7 ComponentsofthePURPLEMachine 211 7.8 ThePURPLEKeys 217 CHAPTER10 THEPARADIGMOF 7.9 CribbingPURPLE:FindingtheV-Stepper 219 PUBLICKEYCRYPTOGRAPHY 7.10 CribbingPURPLE:Findingthe C-Steppers 238 10.1 IntheBeginning... 334 10.2 KeyDistribution 335 10.3 E-Commerce 336 CHAPTER8 STREAMCIPHERS 10.4 Public-KeyCryptosystems: EasyandHardComputationalProblems 337 8.1 StreamCiphers 244 10.5 DoPKCS SolvetheProblem 8.2 FeedbackShiftRegisters 244 ofKeyDistribution? 341 8.3 TheAlgebraofPolynomialsoverZZ 247 2 10.6 P.S. 342 8.4 TheCharacteristicPolynomialofa LinearFeedbackShiftRegister 251 8.5 PropertiesofMaximalLengthLFSR CHAPTER11 THEKNAPSACK Sequences 254 CRYPTOSYSTEM 8.6 LinearEquivalence 258 8.7 CombiningMultipleLinearFeedback 11.1 SubsetSumandKnapsackProblems 344 ShiftRegisters 259 11.2 ModularArithmeticand 8.8 MatrixRepresentationoftheLFSR 260 theEuclideanAlgorithm 346 8.9 CribbingofStreamEncipheredASCII 11.3 AModularArithmetic Plaintext 261 KnapsackProblem 350 8.10 NonlinearFeedbackShiftRegisters 271 11.4 Trap-DoorKnapsacks 350 8.11 NonlinearKeyStreamGeneration 273 11.5 KnapsackEnciphermentand 8.12 IrregularClocking 275 DeciphermentofASCII-Plaintext 355 8.13 RC4 278 11.6 CryptanalysisoftheMerkle–Hellman 8.14 StreamEnciphermentProblems 281 KnapsackSystem(ModularMapping) 358 11.7 DiophantineApproximation 364 11.8 ShortVectorsinaLattice 368 CHAPTER9 BLOCK-CIPHERS:LUCIFER, 11.9 Knapsack-LikeCryptosystems 371 DES,ANDAES 11.10 KnapsackCryptosystemProblems 371 9.1 LUCIFER 283 9.2 DES 288 CHAPTER12 THERSACRYPTOSYSTEM 9.3 TheDESS-Boxes,P-Box,andInitial Permutation(IP) 289 12.1 AShortNumber-TheoreticDigression 376 9.4 DESKeySchedule 292 12.2 RSA 378 9.5 SampleDESEncipherment 294 12.3 TheRSAEnciphermentand 9.6 Chaining 295 DeciphermentofASCII-Plaintext 379 CONTENTS vii 12.4 AttackonRSA 382 15.10 TheEllipticCurveDigitalSignature 12.5 WilliamsVariationofRSA 383 Algorithm 444 12.6 MultiprecisionModularArithmetic 387 15.11 TheCerticomChallenge 445 15.12 NSAandEllipticCurveCryptography 445 CHAPTER13 PRIMENUMBERSAND FACTORIZATION CHAPTER16 KEYEXCHANGEINANETWORK 13.1 NumberTheoryandCryptography 390 16.1 KeyDistributioninaNetwork 447 13.2 PrimeNumbersandtheSieveof 16.2 U.S.Patent’770 448 Eratosthenes 390 16.3 Spoofing 448 13.3 Pollard’sp21Method 391 16.4 ElGamal’sExtensionof 13.4 Pollard’sr-Algorithm 394 Diffie–Hellman 450 13.5 QuadraticResidues 396 16.5 Shamir’sAutonomousKeyExchange 451 13.6 RandomFactorization 401 16.6 X9.17KeyExchangeArchitecture 453 13.7 TheQuadraticSieve(QS) 403 16.7 TheNeedham–SchroederKey 13.8 TestingifanIntegerisaPrime 405 DistributionProtocol 456 13.9 TheRSAChallenge 407 13.10 PerfectNumbersandthe MersennePrimes 408 CHAPTER17 DIGITALSIGNATURESAND AUTHENTICATION 13.11 MultiprecisionArithmetic 409 13.12 PrimeNumberTestingand 17.1 TheNeedforSignatures 464 FactorizationProblems 410 17.2 ThreatstoNetworkTransactions 465 17.3 Secrecy,DigitalSignatures,and Authentication 465 CHAPTER14 THEDISCRETELOGARITHM 17.4 TheDesiderataofaDigital PROBLEM Signature 466 14.1 TheDiscreteLogarithmProblem 17.5 Public-KeyCryptographyand Modulop 414 SignatureSystems 467 14.2 SolutionoftheDLPModulopGivena 17.6 Rabin’sQuadraticResidue Factorizationofp21 415 SignatureProtocol 468 14.3 Adelman’sSubexponentialAlgorithm 17.7 HashFunctions 470 fortheDiscreteLogarithmProblem 419 17.8 MD5 471 14.4 TheBaby-Step,Giant-Step 17.9 TheSecureHashAlgorithm 473 Algorithm 420 17.10 NIST’sDigitalSignature 14.5 TheIndex-CalculusMethod 420 Algorithm 474 14.6 Pollard’sr-Algorithm 424 17.11 ElGamal’sSignatureProtocol 475 14.7 ExtensionFields 426 17.12 TheFiat–ShamirIdentificationand 14.8 TheCurrentStateofDiscrete SignatureSchema 476 LogarithmResearch 428 17.13 TheObliviousTransfer 478 CHAPTER15 ELLIPTICCURVECRYPTOGRAPHY CHAPTER18 APPLICATIONSOF CRYPTOGRAPHY 15.1 EllipticCurves 429 15.2 TheEllipticGroupovertheReals 431 18.1 UNIXPasswordEncipherment 480 15.3 Lenstra’sFactorizationAlgorithm 432 18.2 MagneticStripeTechnology 482 15.4 TheEllipticGroupoverZ (p.3) 434 18.3 ProtectingATMTransactions 484 p 15.5 EllipticGroupsovertheFieldZ 436 18.4 Keyed-AccessCards 491 m,2 15.6 ComputationsintheEllipticGroup 18.5 SmartCards 491 EZ (a,b) 438 18.6 WhoCanYouTrust?:Kohnfelder’s m,2 15.7 SupersingularEllipticCurves 441 Certificates 495 15.8 Diffie–HellmanKeyExchangeUsing 18.7 X.509Certificates 495 anEllipticCurve 442 18.8 TheSecureSocketLayer(SSL) 497 15.9 TheMenezes–VanstoneElliptic 18.9 MakingaSecureCreditCard CurveCryptosystem 443 PaymentontheWeb 502 viii CONTENTS CHAPTER19 CRYPTOGRAPHIC 19.7 U.S.Patent3,543,904 509 PATENTS 19.8 U.S.Patent4,200,770 511 19.9 U.S.Patent4,218,582 512 19.1 WhatisaPatent? 506 19.10 U.S.Patent4,405,829 512 19.2 PatentabilityofIdeas 507 19.11 PKS/RSADSILitigation 514 19.3 TheFormatofaPatent 507 19.12 LeonStambler 514 19.4 PatentableversusNonpatentable Subjects 508 INDEX 516 19.5 Infringement 509 19.6 TheRoleofPatentsin Cryptography 509

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