Computer design and architecture

730 Pages·2000·9.07 MB·English

by  Sajjan G. Shiva

The First andSecondEditions werepublished as
Computer DesignandArchitecture (Little, Brown, 1985; HarperCollins, 1991).
ISBN: 0-8247-0368-5
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Preface
Thisbook is about the design and architecture of computers. Architecture
is the ‘‘art or science of building; a method or style of building,’’ according
to one dictionary. A computer architect develops the functional and per-
formance specifications for the various blocks of a computer system and
defines the interfaces between those blocks, in consultation with hardware
and software designers. A computer designer, on the other hand, refines
those building-block specifications and implements those blocks with an
appropriate mix of hardware, software, and firmware. It is my belief that
the capabilities of an architect are greatly enhanced if he or she is exposed
to the design aspects of a computer system. Consequently, the backbone of
this book is a description of the complete design of a simple but complete
hypothetical computer. The book describes the architectural features of
existing computer systems as enhancements to the structure of the simple
computer.
Books on digital systems architecture fall into four categories: logic
design books that cover the hardware logic design in detail but fail to
provide the details of computer hardware design; books on computer orga-
nization that deal with the computer hardware from a programmer’s view-
point;booksoncomputerhardwaredesignthataresuitableforanelectrical
engineeringcurriculum;andbooksoncomputersystemarchitecturewithno
detailed treatment of hardware design aspects. I have tried to capture the
important attributes of the four categories of books to come up with a
comprehensive text on hardware design and architecture. I have included
the pertinent software aspects as needed.
The first edition of the book, published in 1985, was a result of my
teaching a sequence of computer architecture courses at the senior under-
graduate and beginning graduate levels for several years to both computer
scienceandelectricalengineeringstudents.Thesecondedition,publishedin
1991,expandedthebooktoelevenchaptersandincludedseveraladditional
v
vi Preface
topics in response to the comments from the users of the first edition. The
third edition expands the topical coverage of the second edition and con-
tains more contemporary architectures as examples. The book does not
assume prior knowledge of computers, although exposure to programming
with high-level and assembly languages makes the reading easier. Exposure
to electronics is not required as a prerequisite for understanding this book.
The introductory chapter briefly outlines digital computer system termi-
nology and traces the evolution of computer structures. Traditionally, a
discussion of number systems and computer codes is found in an introduc-
torychapterofthiskind.IhavemovedthismaterialtoAppendixA,sincea
majorityofstudentsarenowfamiliarwiththatmaterialmuchearlierthanat
the college level. Nevertheless, Appendix A provides sufficient details for
those not familiar with that subject.
Chapter 1 covers the analysis and design of combinational logic circuits.
Logic-minimizationproceduresarenotpartofthischapter,sinceamastery
of logic minimization is not required for the purposes of this book.
Appendix B provides the details of logic minimization. Popular off-the-
shelf integrated circuits (ICs) and designing with ICs are introduced in
this chapter. Appendix C provides brief descriptions of selected ICs.
Chapter 2 covers the analysis and design of synchronous sequential cir-
cuits. Concepts of registers and register-transfer logic are introduced along
withprimitiveregister-transferlanguage(RTL).ThisRTLisusedintherest
of the book, although any other available RTL can be substituted in its
place.
Chapter3introducesmodelsforcommonlyusedmemoriesanddescribes
various memory devices and organizations with an emphasis on semicon-
ductor memory design.
Chapter 4 provides a programmer’s view of a simple hypothetical com-
puter (ASC). ASC organization, instruction set, assembly-language pro-
gramming, and details of an assembler are provided along with a brief
introduction to program loading.
Chapter5detailsthehardwaredesignofASC,includingbothhardwired
and microprogrammed control units. Although the development of such
detailed design is tedious, it is my belief that system designers, architects,
and system programmers should go through the steps of such detailed
designtobetterappreciatetheinnerworkingsofadigitalcomputersystem.
Chapters 1 through 5 form the ‘‘design’’ part of the book while the
remaining chapters emphasize the ‘‘architecture.’’ These chapters describe
the architectural features found in practical computer systems as enhance-
mentstothestructureofASC.Onlypertinentdetailsofcommercialsystems
are used as examples rather than complete descriptions of commercial
architectures.
Preface vii
Chapter 6 enhances the input/output subsystem of ASC from the pro-
grammed input/output structure to the concept of input/output processors,
throughinterruptprocessing,directmemoryaccess,andinput/outputchan-
nels. System structures of four popular commercial systems are detailed.
Chapter 7 covers popular data and instruction representations, register
structures, and addressing modes.
Chapter 8 details the enhancements to the memory system in terms of
cache and virtual memory organizations.
Chapter 9 is devoted to the enhancements to the control unit and covers
the topics of pipelining, parallel instruction execution, and reduced instruc-
tion set computers (RISC), a popular architectural style of today.
Chapter10detailstheenhancementstothearithmetic/logicunittocover
theconceptsofstack-basedALUs,pipelinedALUs,andparallelprocessing
with multiple functional units.
Chapter11isabriefintroductiontovariouspopulararchitecturesinclud-
ing dataflow architectures, computer networks, and distributed processing.
Details of selected system architectures are also provided in this chapter.
Problems are given at the end of each chapter. A solution manual is
availablefromthepublisherfortheuseofinstructors.Thelistofreferences
providedattheendofeachchaptermaybeconsultedbyreadersforfurther
details on topics covered in that chapter.
The following method of study may be followed for a single-semester
course in computer architecture:
1. For computer science studentswith no logic design background:
Chapters 1, 2, and 3 in detail, review of Chapter 4, Chapter 5 in
detail, selected topics from the remaining chapters.
2. Forcomputerengineeringstudents:ReviewofChapters1and2,
Chapters3through6indetail,selectedtopicsfromtheremaining
chapters.
Atwo-semestercourseincomputerarchitecturemightfollowthismethodof
study:
1. Semester 1: Appendix A, Chapter 1, Appendixes B and C,
Chapters 2 through 5.
2. Semester 2: Chapters 6 through 11, case studies of selected con-
temporary systems.
Several of my colleagues and students in my architecture classes at the
University of Alabama in Huntsville have contributed immensely to the
contents of this book. I thank them. I would also like to thank the users
of the first and second editions both in the United States and abroad for
their suggestions for improvements that have resulted in this new edition.
viii Preface
ThanksarealsoduetoRussellDekkerandEricStannardatMarcelDekker,
Inc., for their encouragement and superb support in the production of the
book. I thank my wife, Kalpana, and daughters, Sruti and Sweta, for their
loveandunderstanding,andassistanceinthepreparationofthemanuscript.
Sajjan G. Shiva
Contents
Preface v
Introduction: Computer System Components 1
I.1 Computer System Organization 1
I.2 Computer Evolution 5
I.3 Design vs. Architecture 8
I.4 Overview of the Book 9
References 10
Chapter 1 Combinational Logic 11
1.1 Basic Operations and Terminology 11
1.2 Boolean Algebra (Switching Algebra) 21
1.3 Primitive Hardware Blocks 23
1.4 Functional Analysis of Combinational Circuits 23
1.5 Synthesis of Combinational Circuits 29
1.6 Some Popular Combinational Circuits 35
1.7 Integrated Circuits 47
1.8 Loading and Timing 64
1.9 Summary 68
References 68
Problems 69
Chapter 2 Synchronous Sequential Circuits 73
2.1 Flip-Flops 76
2.2 Timing Characteristics of Flip-Flops 85
2.3 Flip-Flop ICs 91
2.4 Analysis of Synchronous Sequential Circuits 92
2.5 Design of Synchronous Sequential Circuits 102
2.6 Registers 107
2.7 Register Transfer Logic 119
ix
x Contents
2.8 Register Transfer Schemes 124
2.9 Register Transfer Languages 128
2.10 Designing Sequential Circuits with Integrated Circuits 133
2.11 Summary 136
References 136
Problems 137
Chapter 3 Memory and Storage 143
3.1 Types of Memory 144
3.2 Memory System Parameters 152
3.3 Memory Devices and Organizations 156
3.4 Memory System Design Using ICs 173
3.5 Summary 174
References 177
Problems 177
Chapter 4 A Simple Computer: Organization and Programming 181
4.1 A Simple Computer 181
4.2 ASC Assembler 197
4.3 Program Loading 209
4.4 Summary 210
References 210
Problems 211
Chapter 5 A Simple Computer: Hardware Design 215
5.1 Program Execution 216
5.2 Data, Instruction, and Address Flow 217
5.3 Bus Structure 221
5.4 Arithmetic and Logic Unit 227
5.5 Input/Output 230
5.6 Control Unit 232
5.7 Console 249
5.8 Microprogrammed Control Unit 257
5.9 Summary 268
References 268
Problems 269
Chapter 6 Input/Output 273
6.1 General I/O Model 274
6.2 The I/O Function 279
6.3 Interrupts 286
6.4 Direct Memory Access 295