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Communication Satellites Fifth Edition Donald H. Martin Paul R. Anderson Lucy Bartamian The Aerospace Press • El Segundo, California American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. • Reston, Virginia The Aerospace Press 2350 E. El Segundo Boulevard El Segundo, California 90245-4691 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. 1801 Alexander Bell Drive Reston, Virginia 20191-4344 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Martin, Donald H. Communication satellites / Donald H. Martin, Paul R. Anderson, Lucy Bartamian . -- 5th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-884989-19-5 1. Artificial satellites in telecommunication--History. I. Anderson, Paul R. (Paul Robert), 1951- II. Bartamian, Lucy. III. Title. TK5104.M3555 2006 384.5’1--dc22 2006026639 Copyright © 2007 by The Aerospace Corporation All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publishers. Data and information appearing in this book are for informational purposes only. The publishers and the author are not responsible for any injury or damage resulting from use or reliance, nor do the publishers or the author warrant that use or reliance will be free from privately owned rights. All trademarks, service marks, and trade names are the property of their respective owners. Preface C ommunication satellites represent one of the most significant applications of space technology. Almost every year since 1965 a new system has launched its first communication satellite. Today, the applications of communication satellites reach approximately 200 countries, territories, and ocean areas for communication services of all types to both large and small terminals on land, on ships, and on aircraft. Furthermore, although some of these systems are government sponsored, most are commercial ventures, of which many are in competition with the terrestrial communications industry. This book describes and summarizes the technical details of communication satellites. It includes, revises, and adds to the material in the first four editions: Communication Satellites 1958 to 1988, Communication Satellites 1958 to 1992, Communication Satellites 1958 to 1995, and Communication Satellites fourth edi- tion (2000). The scope of the book extends from 1958 through satellites now being manufactured. Past studies and de- velopments that did not result in a launch, and current proposals that have not yet committed to manufactur- ing and launch, are generally not mentioned. Because some satellites can be developed, tested, and launched within two to three years, systems that may not be launching their first satellite until after 2008 might not be discussed. The information in this book is derived from publicly available sources. Hence, variations in the quantity of information given about each satellite are dependent on how much the owners, manufacturers, and others have published. In general, more information is available for satellites that have been launched than for satel- lites whose developments are yet to be completed. Information presented here is based on sources that were available through August 2006, except that launch dates are included through mid-December 2006. Following a brief historical survey, the 10 chapters of this book cover 10 categories of communication satellites. These categories are based on similarity of application and geographic associations. Although the distinctions between the categories are by no means “black and white,” each system together with its satellites is placed in the chapter that best fits it. Within each chapter, satellites of the same system are grouped together, and the systems are presented chronologically according to their initial launch dates. The text emphasizes the satellite and its communica- tion subsystem, but also touches some broader aspects of the system of which the satellite is a part. Major business events are mentioned. Accompanying the satellite descriptions are drawings of the satellites, com- munication subsystem block diagrams, and a list of details. The values given in the lists may differ from those in other documents because of variations that are not always stated (for example, maximum versus nominal, specification versus measured, beginning of life versus end of life). Where possible, these qualifying factors are stated. Beginning with this edition, metric units are used with programs that date from the 1990s and for many earlier programs. Appendixes present information on the International Telecommunications Union and the World Trade Agreements in relation to communication satellite systems, plus a brief discussion of satellite beacons used for atmospheric research. A glossary contains symbols common to the communication subsystem block dia- grams, a list of abbreviations and acronyms, and a table showing which frequency bands are used by each satellite system. An extensive bibliography cites literature on communication satellite systems, their applica- tions, ground terminals, transmission methods, spectrum use, network engineering, satellite hardware, and social, economic, and legal issues. A detailed index includes names of satellites, systems, system owners, satellite manufacturers, other organizations, and nations. ix Contents Preface ...........................................................................................................................................................ix Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................................xi HistoricalBackground ...................................................................................................................................1 1.ExperimentalSatellites ..............................................................................................................................3 SCORE .....................................................................................................................................................3 Echo ..........................................................................................................................................................4 Courier ......................................................................................................................................................5 WestFord ..................................................................................................................................................6 Telstar .......................................................................................................................................................7 Relay .........................................................................................................................................................8 Syncom1to3 .........................................................................................................................................10 LincolnExperimentalSatellites .............................................................................................................12 ApplicationsTechnologySatellites ........................................................................................................18 CommunicationsTechnologySatellite ...................................................................................................27 Sirio ........................................................................................................................................................30 JapaneseSatellites ..................................................................................................................................32 AdvancedCommunicationsTechnologySatellite ..................................................................................49 Stentor ....................................................................................................................................................54 2.GlobalSystemsSatellites .........................................................................................................................57 Intelsat ....................................................................................................................................................57 PanAmSat .............................................................................................................................................101 ColumbiaCommunications ..................................................................................................................112 Rimsat ...................................................................................................................................................114 LoralSkynet .........................................................................................................................................114 NewSkiesSatellites .............................................................................................................................119 LockheedMartinIntersputnik ..............................................................................................................126 Worldsat ................................................................................................................................................128 3.MobileServicesSatellites ......................................................................................................................133 Marisat ..................................................................................................................................................133 Marecs ..................................................................................................................................................137 Inmarsat ................................................................................................................................................139 MSat .....................................................................................................................................................149 ASEANCellularSatelliteSystem(ACeS) ...........................................................................................155 Thuraya .................................................................................................................................................157 TerreStar ...............................................................................................................................................159 OtherGeosynchronousOrbitMobileServicesSatellites .....................................................................160 PeoleandEole ......................................................................................................................................160 Argos ....................................................................................................................................................161 Sarsat-Cospas .......................................................................................................................................162 VITA .....................................................................................................................................................164 Orbcomm ..............................................................................................................................................164 Tubsat ...................................................................................................................................................167 GonetsandOtherSovietandRussianLEOs ........................................................................................168 S80 ........................................................................................................................................................169 SatelitesdeColetadeDados ................................................................................................................170 Temisat .................................................................................................................................................171 Eyesat ...................................................................................................................................................172 SAFIR,IRIS,andRubin ......................................................................................................................173 Faisat ....................................................................................................................................................174 CTA(GEMstar) ....................................................................................................................................175 v Contents AprizeSatellite,LatinSat .....................................................................................................................175 OtherLittleLEOSatellites ...................................................................................................................176 Iridium ..................................................................................................................................................177 Globalstar .............................................................................................................................................180 ICO .......................................................................................................................................................183 OtherBigLEOSatellites ......................................................................................................................185 4.MilitarySatellites ...................................................................................................................................187 IDCSP ...................................................................................................................................................187 Tacsat ....................................................................................................................................................189 SkynetIandNATOII ...........................................................................................................................191 DSCSII ................................................................................................................................................193 SkynetII ...............................................................................................................................................195 Gapfiller/Gapsat....................................................................................................................................197 NATOIII ..............................................................................................................................................198 FLTSATCOMandAFSATCOM ..........................................................................................................200 DSCSIII ...............................................................................................................................................204 Leasat....................................................................................................................................................207 DODLightsats ......................................................................................................................................210 Skynet4 ................................................................................................................................................213 NATOIV ..............................................................................................................................................215 UHFFollow-On ....................................................................................................................................215 Milstar ..................................................................................................................................................220 PolarProgram .......................................................................................................................................225 SICRAL ................................................................................................................................................225 XTAR,SpainSat ...................................................................................................................................226 Syracuse3.............................................................................................................................................228 WidebandGapfillerSystem ..................................................................................................................228 Skynet5 ................................................................................................................................................231 NATO5 ................................................................................................................................................232 AdvancedEHF .....................................................................................................................................232 MobileUserObjectiveSystem .............................................................................................................233 Germany ...............................................................................................................................................234 TransformationalSatelliteCommunicationsSystem(TSAT) ..............................................................235 DefenseSatelliteCommunicationsSystem ..........................................................................................235 5.RussianSatellites ....................................................................................................................................237 Molniya ................................................................................................................................................237 Raduga ..................................................................................................................................................241 Ekran ....................................................................................................................................................242 Gorizont ................................................................................................................................................244 Gals(MilitaryCommunications) .........................................................................................................246 Volna .....................................................................................................................................................246 Potok .....................................................................................................................................................247 Luch ......................................................................................................................................................248 Gals(SatelliteBroadcasting) ................................................................................................................249 Express .................................................................................................................................................250 Kupon ...................................................................................................................................................254 Bonum-1 ...............................................................................................................................................255 Yamal ....................................................................................................................................................256 PossibleFutureRussianSatellites ........................................................................................................259 TheIntersputnikSystem .......................................................................................................................259 vi Contents 6.NorthAmericanSatellites .....................................................................................................................261 CanadianCommunicationandDirectBroadcastSatellites ..................................................................261 U.S.CommunicationSatellites ............................................................................................................284 TrackingandDataRelaySatelliteSystem ...........................................................................................334 NorthAmericanKa-BandSystems ......................................................................................................342 NorthAmericanQ/V-BandSystems ....................................................................................................346 U.S.DirectBroadcastSatellites ...........................................................................................................346 U.S.DigitalAudioBroadcastSatellites ...............................................................................................360 MexicanCommunicationSatellites ......................................................................................................366 7.EuropeanSatellites ................................................................................................................................375 EuropeanSpaceAgency .......................................................................................................................375 Eutelsat .................................................................................................................................................391 FranceandGermany ............................................................................................................................411 Luxembourg .........................................................................................................................................426 Scandinavia ..........................................................................................................................................436 UnitedKingdom ...................................................................................................................................442 Italy .......................................................................................................................................................443 Spain .....................................................................................................................................................448 Portugal ................................................................................................................................................452 Turkey ...................................................................................................................................................453 Greece ...................................................................................................................................................455 Seychelles .............................................................................................................................................457 8.AsianSatellites ........................................................................................................................................459 Japan .....................................................................................................................................................459 Indonesia ..............................................................................................................................................492 India ......................................................................................................................................................501 China ....................................................................................................................................................516 AsiaSat .................................................................................................................................................525 Pakistan ................................................................................................................................................532 Thailand ................................................................................................................................................533 APTSatellite(APStar) .........................................................................................................................538 SouthKorea ..........................................................................................................................................542 Malaysia ...............................................................................................................................................548 ThePhilippines ....................................................................................................................................552 SingaporeandTaiwan ..........................................................................................................................554 Kazakhstan ...........................................................................................................................................555 Vietnam ................................................................................................................................................555 Iran........................................................................................................................................................556 Laos ......................................................................................................................................................557 9.African,MiddleEastern,SouthAmerican,andAustralianSatellites ...............................................559 Arabsat..................................................................................................................................................559 Brazil ....................................................................................................................................................564 Australia ...............................................................................................................................................569 Argentina ..............................................................................................................................................579 Chile .....................................................................................................................................................580 Israel .....................................................................................................................................................581 Egypt ....................................................................................................................................................584 WorldSpace ..........................................................................................................................................585 SouthAfrica ..........................................................................................................................................587 SaudiArabia .........................................................................................................................................588 Tonga ....................................................................................................................................................588 vii Contents RegionalAfricanSatelliteCommunicationsOrganization ..................................................................588 Nigeria ..................................................................................................................................................590 Venezuela..............................................................................................................................................591 10.Amateur,Educational,andScientificSatellites .................................................................................593 AmateurandEducationalSatellites .....................................................................................................594 ScientificandCalibrationSatellites .....................................................................................................621 Appendix .....................................................................................................................................................627 A.TheInternationalTelecommunicationUnionandCommunicationSatellites .................................627 B.TheWorldTradeAgreementsandCommunicationSatellites .........................................................630 C.SatelliteBeaconsforPropagationResearch ....................................................................................631 Glossary ......................................................................................................................................................633 BlockDiagramSymbols ......................................................................................................................633 AbbreviationsandAcronyms ...............................................................................................................634 FrequencyTable ...................................................................................................................................640 Bibliography ...............................................................................................................................................645 Index ............................................................................................................................................................769 AbouttheAuthors ......................................................................................................................................816 viii Historical Background T he first well-known article on communication satellites 1. A. C. Clarke, “Extra-Terrestrial Relays,” Wireless World, was published in 1945 [1]. The article discussed the Vol. 51, No. 10 (October 1945). Reprinted in Communication synchronous orbit* and the global coverage possible Satellite Systems Technology, Progress in Astronautics and with three satellites in this orbit. Some other subjects Aeronautics, Vol. 19, R. B. Marsten, ed. (1966). addressed included Earth coverage and spot-beam antennas, 2. E. Burgess, “The Establishment and Use of Artificial multiple-beam antennas, optical and radio crosslinks between Satellites,” Aeronautics (September 1949). the satellites, and solar arrays for a prime power source. An approximate calculation was given for a 4 GHz downlink, 3. J. R. Pierce, “Orbital Radio Relay,” Jet Propulsion, Vol. concluding that 10 W of power is sufficient for a voice link 25 (April 1955). with a 3 ft transmitting antenna and 1 ft receiving antenna. 4. J. R. Pierce and R. Kompfner, “Transoceanic Commu- In 1949, another article [2] discussed the same issues and nications by Means of Satellite,” Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. stated that a geosynchronous communication satellite could 47, No. 3 (March 1959); reprinted in Proceedings of the IEEE, be launched as early as the end of the 1950s. Vol. 85, No. 6 (June 1997). The first space communications activity can be traced to 5. Space Communications and Navigation 1958–1964, 1946, when the Army achieved radar contact with the moon. NASA SP-93 (1966). In 1954, the Navy began communications experiments using the moon as a passive reflector. By 1959, an operational 6. L. E. Johnson, “Satellite Communications in the Navy,” communication link was established between Hawaii and Proceedings of the 6th Space Congress, Vol. 2 (March 1969). Washington, D.C. This link was available 4 to 10 hr per day 7. Space Electronics Issue, Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. until 1963, when the program was stopped, apparently because 48, No. 4 (April 1960). of the progress in artificial, active communication satellites. 8. U.S. Army Space Issue, IRE Transactions on Military The first man-made communication satellite, Project Electronics, Vol. MIL-4, No. 2–3 (April–July 1960). SCORE, was launched in December 1958. Its operating life was limited to 12 days, when the batteries failed. By 1959, 9. “Communicating by Satellite,” Vectors (Hughes many articles on communication satellite topics began to Aircraft Co.), Vol. 8, No. 4 (4th Quarter 1966). appear in the technical journals [3–9]. Typical subjects of 10. Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite discussion were the merits of passive versus active satellites, Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA History Office, low versus synchronous altitude, and random orbital positions Washington, D.C. (1997). versus stationkeeping. In 1960, two journals published special 11. E. Slack. “A Brief History of Satellite Communications.” issues on space electronics with more than 10 articles on Pacific Telecommunications Review, Vol. 22, No. 1 (First communication satellites [7–8]. In the period from 1962 to Quarter 2001), available at http://web.ptc.org/library/ptr/pdf/ 1964, experimental programs using the medium-altitude 1q01.pdf (26 October 2004). Telstar and Relay satellites and the synchronous-altitude Syncom satellites proved the analytical predictions about 12. D. Whalen, “The Origins of Satellite Communications satellite communications and provided many convincing 1945–1965,” Paper 2003-0661, 41st AIAA Aerospace Sciences demonstrations [10–12]. These programs led to the beginning Meeting & Exhibit (Reston, VA, AIAA Inc., January 2003). of operational satellite communications in 1965 as well as to a continuing experimental effort that is still advancing the state of the art. * * * * * * *Over the years terminology has changed to geosynchronous orbit or geostationary orbit, the latter implying a low inclination (e.g. 5 deg or less, often 0.1 deg or less), which is almost always used in practice. In this book “synchronous orbit” is retained for older satellites but “geostationary orbit” is used for more recent satellites. 1 1. Experimental Satellites A lthough the performance of communication satellites Communication satellites have been in operational could be predicted theoretically, until 1962 or 1963 commercial and military service since 1965 and 1967, there was considerable doubt concerning whether their respectively. However, there was, and still is, the need for actual performance would match the theory. This was one of additional experimental satellites. These are used to prove new the basic motivations for the early communication satellite technologies for later introduction into operational satellites. experiments. Two other important factors were the desire Some satellites combine experimental objectives with to prove the satellite hardware (since space technology in preoperational demonstrations. Discussions of such satellites general was still in its infancy) and the need to test operational are included in this chapter if their emphasis is primarily procedures and ground equipment. Whereas the first few experimental; those directly continued by operational satellites experiments (SCORE, Courier, and Echo) were very brief are described in later chapters. beginnings, the Telstar, Relay, and Syncom satellites laid definite foundations for the first operational satellites. SCORE The first artificial communication satellite, called Project Orbit SCORE (Signal Communication by Orbiting Relay Equipment) 100 x 800 nmi, 32 deg inclination [1–5], was launched in December 1958. The primary objective of the project was to demonstrate that an Atlas missile could Orbital history be put into orbit. The secondary objective was to demonstrate Launched 18 December 1958, battery failed 30 December a communications repeater. 1958 The entire communication subsystem was developed in 6 Decayed 21 January 1959 months by modifying commercial equipment. Two redundant Atlas B launch vehicle sets of equipment were mounted in the nose of the missile. Four antennas were mounted flush with the missile surface, Management two for transmission and two for reception. The subsystem Developed by ARPA; communications equipment built by Army was designed to operate for the expected 21-day orbital life Signal Research and Development Laboratory, Ft. Monmouth, of the missile. Because of the short lifetime, batteries alone New Jersey were the power source; thus, the complexity of solar cells and Each half of the communication subsystem had a tape recorder rechargeable batteries was avoided. The details about SCORE with a 4 min capacity. Any of the four ground stations in the are as follows. southern United States could command the satellite into a Satellite playback mode to transmit the stored message or into a record Communications equipment integral with Atlas launch vehicle mode to receive and store a new message. A real-time mode was also available in which the recorder was bypassed. About 99 lb equipment 8 hr of actual operation occurred before the batteries failed. Silver-zinc batteries, 56 W maximum load During this time, voice, single-channel teletype, and frequency- multiplexed six-channel teletype signals were transmitted to Capacity the satellite, recorded, stored, and later retransmitted. One of One voice or six teletype channels the signals handled in this manner was a Christmas message Real-time and store-dump modes from President Eisenhower. In addition to the stored-mode transmissions, there were several real-time transmissions Transmitter through the satellite. 132 MHz, 8 W output * * * * * * All vacuum tubes Receiver 150 MHz, 10 dB noise figure All transistors Receiver Control Recorder Antenna Four slots (two transmit, two receive) C Transmitter –1 dB gain Recorder C 4 min capacity, 300–5000 Hz band Life Redundant, identical to above Two weeks Fig. 1.1. SCORE communication subsystem. 3 Experimental Satellites 1. S. P. Brown and G. F. Senn, “Project SCORE,” 4. S. P. Brown, “The ATLAS-SCORE Communication Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 48, No. 4 (April 1960). System,” Proceedings of the 3rd National Convention on Military Electronics (June 1959). 2. S. P. Brown, “Project SCORE: Signal Communication by Orbiting Relay Equipment,” IRE Transactions of Military 5. D. Davis, “The Talking Satellite. A Reminiscence of Electronics, Vol. MIL-4, No. 2–3 (April–July 1960). Project SCORE,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 52, No. 7–8 (July–August 1999). 3. M. I. Davis and G. N. Krassner, “SCORE—First Communication Satellite,” Journal of the American Rocket Society, Vol. 4 (May 1959). Echo During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the relative merits Management of passive and active communication satellites were often Developed by G. T. Schjeldahl Company (balloon), Grumman discussed. Passive satellites merely reflect incident radiation, (dispenser) for NASA (National Aeronautics and Space whereas active satellites have equipment that receives, Administration) Langley Research Center (Echo 1), NASA processes (may be only amplification and frequency translation, Goddard Space Flight Center (Echo 2). or may include additional operations), and retransmits incident Echo 1 was used for picture, data, and voice transmissions radiation. At the time of Project Echo, the main advantages between a number of ground terminals in the United States. given for passive satellites were In addition, some transmissions from the United States • very wide bandwidths were received in England. Numerous modulation methods • multiple-access capability were tested during the Echo 1 experiments, and valuable • no chance for degradations caused by failures of satellite experience was gained in the preparation and operation of the electronics terminals, especially in tracking the satellites. In addition to the communications experiments, Echo 1 was used for radar The disadvantages were and optical measurements, and its orbital data were used to • lack of signal amplification calculate atmospheric density. • relatively large orbit perturbations resulting from solar Echo 2 had a slightly different design to provide a stiffer and atmospheric effects (because of the large surface-to- and longer lasting spherical surface. It was used very little for weight ratio) communications, although some one-way transmissions were • difficulty in maintaining the proper reflector shape made from England to the Soviet Union. It was primarily used The progress in active satellites soon overshadowed in scientific investigations similar to those performed with the possible advantages of passive satellites, and interest in Echo 1. passive satellites ceased in the mid-1960s. In the mid-1970s, * * * * * * there was some interest in passive satellites concerning their use in a nuclear-war environment. 1. Space Communications and Navigation 1958–1964, Project Echo [1–12] produced two large spherical passive NASA SP-93 (1966). satellites that were launched in 1960 and 1964. The details of 2. Special Issue on Project Echo, Bell System Technical Echo are as follows. Journal, Vol. 40, No. 4 (July 1961). Satellite 3. Satellite Communications (Military-Civil Roles and Echo 1: sphere, 100 ft diam, 166 lb Relationships), second report by the Committee on Government Echo 2: sphere, 135 ft diam, 547 lb Operations, U.S. House of Representatives, House Report No. 178 (17 March 1968). Not stabilized, no onboard propulsion Aluminized Mylar surface, maximum reflectivity 98% for 4. H. S. Black, “Latest Results on Project Echo,” Advances frequencies up to 20 GHz in the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. 8 (1961). 5. J. R. Burke, “Passive Satellite Development and Frequencies Technology,” Astronautics and Aerospace Engineering, Vol. 1, Echo 1: 960 and 2390 MHz No. 8 (September 1963). Echo 2: 162 MHz 6. L. Jaffe, “Project Echo Results,” Astronautics, Vol. 6, Orbit No. 5 (May 1961). Echo 1: 820 x 911 nmi, 48.6 deg inclination (initial values) 7. W. C. Nyberg, “Experiments to Determine Echo 2: 557 x 710 nmi, 85.5 deg inclination (initial values) Communication Capability of the Echo II Satellite,” Publications of Goddard Space Flight Center 1964, Vol. II. Orbital history 8. D. H. Hamilton Jr. et al., “Transcontinental Unnumbered: launch vehicle failure 13 May 1960 Satellite Television Transmission,” Proceedings of the IRE Echo 1: launched 12 August 1960, decayed 25 May 1968 (Correspondence section), Vol. 50, No. 6 (June 1962). Echo 2: launched 25 January 1964, decayed 7 June 1969 9. A. Wilson, “A History of Balloon Satellites,” Journal Delta launch vehicle of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 34, No. 1 (January 1981). 4

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Communication Satellites Fifth Edition Donald H. Martin Paul R. Anderson Lucy Bartamian The Aerospace Press • El Segundo, California American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. • Reston, Virginia The Aerospace Press 2350 E. El Segundo Boulevard El Segundo, California 90245-4691 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. 1801 Alexander Bell Drive Reston, Virginia 20191-4344 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Martin, Donald H. Communication satellites / Donald H. Martin, Paul R. Anderson, Lucy Bartamian . -- 5th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-884989-19-5 1. Artificial satellites in telecommunication--History. I. Anderson, Paul R. (Paul Robert), 1951- II. Bartamian, Lucy. III. Title. TK5104.M3555 2006 384.5’1--dc22 2006026639 Copyright © 2007 by The Aerospace Corporation All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publishers. Data and information appearing in this book are for informational purposes only. The publishers and the author are not responsible for any injury or damage resulting from use or reliance, nor do the publishers or the author warrant that use or reliance will be free from privately owned rights. All trademarks, service marks, and trade names are the property of their respective owners. Preface C ommunication satellites represent one of the most significant applications of space technology. Almost every year since 1965 a new system has launched its first communication satellite. Today, the applications of communication satellites reach approximately 200 countries, territories, and ocean areas for communication services of all types to both large and small terminals on land, on ships, and on aircraft. Furthermore, although some of these systems are government sponsored, most are commercial ventures, of which many are in competition with the terrestrial communications industry. This book describes and summarizes the technical details of communication satellites. It includes, revises, and adds to the material in the first four editions: Communication Satellites 1958 to 1988, Communication Satellites 1958 to 1992, Communication Satellites 1958 to 1995, and Communication Satellites fourth edi- tion (2000). The scope of the book extends from 1958 through satellites now being manufactured. Past studies and de- velopments that did not result in a launch, and current proposals that have not yet committed to manufactur- ing and launch, are generally not mentioned. Because some satellites can be developed, tested, and launched within two to three years, systems that may not be launching their first satellite until after 2008 might not be discussed. The information in this book is derived from publicly available sources. Hence, variations in the quantity of information given about each satellite are dependent on how much the owners, manufacturers, and others have published. In general, more information is available for satellites that have been launched than for satel- lites whose developments are yet to be completed. Information presented here is based on sources that were available through August 2006, except that launch dates are included through mid-December 2006. Following a brief historical survey, the 10 chapters of this book cover 10 categories of communication satellites. These categories are based on similarity of application and geographic associations. Although the distinctions between the categories are by no means “black and white,” each system together with its satellites is placed in the chapter that best fits it. Within each chapter, satellites of the same system are grouped together, and the systems are presented chronologically according to their initial launch dates. The text emphasizes the satellite and its communica- tion subsystem, but also touches some broader aspects of the system of which the satellite is a part. Major business events are mentioned. Accompanying the satellite descriptions are drawings of the satellites, com- munication subsystem block diagrams, and a list of details. The values given in the lists may differ from those in other documents because of variations that are not always stated (for example, maximum versus nominal, specification versus measured, beginning of life versus end of life). Where possible, these qualifying factors are stated. Beginning with this edition, metric units are used with programs that date from the 1990s and for many earlier programs. Appendixes present information on the International Telecommunications Union and the World Trade Agreements in relation to communication satellite systems, plus a brief discussion of satellite beacons used for atmospheric research. A glossary contains symbols common to the communication subsystem block dia- grams, a list of abbreviations and acronyms, and a table showing which frequency bands are used by each satellite system. An extensive bibliography cites literature on communication satellite systems, their applica- tions, ground terminals, transmission methods, spectrum use, network engineering, satellite hardware, and social, economic, and legal issues. A detailed index includes names of satellites, systems, system owners, satellite manufacturers, other organizations, and nations. ix Contents Preface ...........................................................................................................................................................ix Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................................xi HistoricalBackground ...................................................................................................................................1 1.ExperimentalSatellites ..............................................................................................................................3 SCORE .....................................................................................................................................................3 Echo ..........................................................................................................................................................4 Courier ......................................................................................................................................................5 WestFord ..................................................................................................................................................6 Telstar .......................................................................................................................................................7 Relay .........................................................................................................................................................8 Syncom1to3 .........................................................................................................................................10 LincolnExperimentalSatellites .............................................................................................................12 ApplicationsTechnologySatellites ........................................................................................................18 CommunicationsTechnologySatellite ...................................................................................................27 Sirio ........................................................................................................................................................30 JapaneseSatellites ..................................................................................................................................32 AdvancedCommunicationsTechnologySatellite ..................................................................................49 Stentor ....................................................................................................................................................54 2.GlobalSystemsSatellites .........................................................................................................................57 Intelsat ....................................................................................................................................................57 PanAmSat .............................................................................................................................................101 ColumbiaCommunications ..................................................................................................................112 Rimsat ...................................................................................................................................................114 LoralSkynet .........................................................................................................................................114 NewSkiesSatellites .............................................................................................................................119 LockheedMartinIntersputnik ..............................................................................................................126 Worldsat ................................................................................................................................................128 3.MobileServicesSatellites ......................................................................................................................133 Marisat ..................................................................................................................................................133 Marecs ..................................................................................................................................................137 Inmarsat ................................................................................................................................................139 MSat .....................................................................................................................................................149 ASEANCellularSatelliteSystem(ACeS) ...........................................................................................155 Thuraya .................................................................................................................................................157 TerreStar ...............................................................................................................................................159 OtherGeosynchronousOrbitMobileServicesSatellites .....................................................................160 PeoleandEole ......................................................................................................................................160 Argos ....................................................................................................................................................161 Sarsat-Cospas .......................................................................................................................................162 VITA .....................................................................................................................................................164 Orbcomm ..............................................................................................................................................164 Tubsat ...................................................................................................................................................167 GonetsandOtherSovietandRussianLEOs ........................................................................................168 S80 ........................................................................................................................................................169 SatelitesdeColetadeDados ................................................................................................................170 Temisat .................................................................................................................................................171 Eyesat ...................................................................................................................................................172 SAFIR,IRIS,andRubin ......................................................................................................................173 Faisat ....................................................................................................................................................174 CTA(GEMstar) ....................................................................................................................................175 v Contents AprizeSatellite,LatinSat .....................................................................................................................175 OtherLittleLEOSatellites ...................................................................................................................176 Iridium ..................................................................................................................................................177 Globalstar .............................................................................................................................................180 ICO .......................................................................................................................................................183 OtherBigLEOSatellites ......................................................................................................................185 4.MilitarySatellites ...................................................................................................................................187 IDCSP ...................................................................................................................................................187 Tacsat ....................................................................................................................................................189 SkynetIandNATOII ...........................................................................................................................191 DSCSII ................................................................................................................................................193 SkynetII ...............................................................................................................................................195 Gapfiller/Gapsat....................................................................................................................................197 NATOIII ..............................................................................................................................................198 FLTSATCOMandAFSATCOM ..........................................................................................................200 DSCSIII ...............................................................................................................................................204 Leasat....................................................................................................................................................207 DODLightsats ......................................................................................................................................210 Skynet4 ................................................................................................................................................213 NATOIV ..............................................................................................................................................215 UHFFollow-On ....................................................................................................................................215 Milstar ..................................................................................................................................................220 PolarProgram .......................................................................................................................................225 SICRAL ................................................................................................................................................225 XTAR,SpainSat ...................................................................................................................................226 Syracuse3.............................................................................................................................................228 WidebandGapfillerSystem ..................................................................................................................228 Skynet5 ................................................................................................................................................231 NATO5 ................................................................................................................................................232 AdvancedEHF .....................................................................................................................................232 MobileUserObjectiveSystem .............................................................................................................233 Germany ...............................................................................................................................................234 TransformationalSatelliteCommunicationsSystem(TSAT) ..............................................................235 DefenseSatelliteCommunicationsSystem ..........................................................................................235 5.RussianSatellites ....................................................................................................................................237 Molniya ................................................................................................................................................237 Raduga ..................................................................................................................................................241 Ekran ....................................................................................................................................................242 Gorizont ................................................................................................................................................244 Gals(MilitaryCommunications) .........................................................................................................246 Volna .....................................................................................................................................................246 Potok .....................................................................................................................................................247 Luch ......................................................................................................................................................248 Gals(SatelliteBroadcasting) ................................................................................................................249 Express .................................................................................................................................................250 Kupon ...................................................................................................................................................254 Bonum-1 ...............................................................................................................................................255 Yamal ....................................................................................................................................................256 PossibleFutureRussianSatellites ........................................................................................................259 TheIntersputnikSystem .......................................................................................................................259 vi Contents 6.NorthAmericanSatellites .....................................................................................................................261 CanadianCommunicationandDirectBroadcastSatellites ..................................................................261 U.S.CommunicationSatellites ............................................................................................................284 TrackingandDataRelaySatelliteSystem ...........................................................................................334 NorthAmericanKa-BandSystems ......................................................................................................342 NorthAmericanQ/V-BandSystems ....................................................................................................346 U.S.DirectBroadcastSatellites ...........................................................................................................346 U.S.DigitalAudioBroadcastSatellites ...............................................................................................360 MexicanCommunicationSatellites ......................................................................................................366 7.EuropeanSatellites ................................................................................................................................375 EuropeanSpaceAgency .......................................................................................................................375 Eutelsat .................................................................................................................................................391 FranceandGermany ............................................................................................................................411 Luxembourg .........................................................................................................................................426 Scandinavia ..........................................................................................................................................436 UnitedKingdom ...................................................................................................................................442 Italy .......................................................................................................................................................443 Spain .....................................................................................................................................................448 Portugal ................................................................................................................................................452 Turkey ...................................................................................................................................................453 Greece ...................................................................................................................................................455 Seychelles .............................................................................................................................................457 8.AsianSatellites ........................................................................................................................................459 Japan .....................................................................................................................................................459 Indonesia ..............................................................................................................................................492 India ......................................................................................................................................................501 China ....................................................................................................................................................516 AsiaSat .................................................................................................................................................525 Pakistan ................................................................................................................................................532 Thailand ................................................................................................................................................533 APTSatellite(APStar) .........................................................................................................................538 SouthKorea ..........................................................................................................................................542 Malaysia ...............................................................................................................................................548 ThePhilippines ....................................................................................................................................552 SingaporeandTaiwan ..........................................................................................................................554 Kazakhstan ...........................................................................................................................................555 Vietnam ................................................................................................................................................555 Iran........................................................................................................................................................556 Laos ......................................................................................................................................................557 9.African,MiddleEastern,SouthAmerican,andAustralianSatellites ...............................................559 Arabsat..................................................................................................................................................559 Brazil ....................................................................................................................................................564 Australia ...............................................................................................................................................569 Argentina ..............................................................................................................................................579 Chile .....................................................................................................................................................580 Israel .....................................................................................................................................................581 Egypt ....................................................................................................................................................584 WorldSpace ..........................................................................................................................................585 SouthAfrica ..........................................................................................................................................587 SaudiArabia .........................................................................................................................................588 Tonga ....................................................................................................................................................588 vii Contents RegionalAfricanSatelliteCommunicationsOrganization ..................................................................588 Nigeria ..................................................................................................................................................590 Venezuela..............................................................................................................................................591 10.Amateur,Educational,andScientificSatellites .................................................................................593 AmateurandEducationalSatellites .....................................................................................................594 ScientificandCalibrationSatellites .....................................................................................................621 Appendix .....................................................................................................................................................627 A.TheInternationalTelecommunicationUnionandCommunicationSatellites .................................627 B.TheWorldTradeAgreementsandCommunicationSatellites .........................................................630 C.SatelliteBeaconsforPropagationResearch ....................................................................................631 Glossary ......................................................................................................................................................633 BlockDiagramSymbols ......................................................................................................................633 AbbreviationsandAcronyms ...............................................................................................................634 FrequencyTable ...................................................................................................................................640 Bibliography ...............................................................................................................................................645 Index ............................................................................................................................................................769 AbouttheAuthors ......................................................................................................................................816 viii Historical Background T he first well-known article on communication satellites 1. A. C. Clarke, “Extra-Terrestrial Relays,” Wireless World, was published in 1945 [1]. The article discussed the Vol. 51, No. 10 (October 1945). Reprinted in Communication synchronous orbit* and the global coverage possible Satellite Systems Technology, Progress in Astronautics and with three satellites in this orbit. Some other subjects Aeronautics, Vol. 19, R. B. Marsten, ed. (1966). addressed included Earth coverage and spot-beam antennas, 2. E. Burgess, “The Establishment and Use of Artificial multiple-beam antennas, optical and radio crosslinks between Satellites,” Aeronautics (September 1949). the satellites, and solar arrays for a prime power source. An approximate calculation was given for a 4 GHz downlink, 3. J. R. Pierce, “Orbital Radio Relay,” Jet Propulsion, Vol. concluding that 10 W of power is sufficient for a voice link 25 (April 1955). with a 3 ft transmitting antenna and 1 ft receiving antenna. 4. J. R. Pierce and R. Kompfner, “Transoceanic Commu- In 1949, another article [2] discussed the same issues and nications by Means of Satellite,” Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. stated that a geosynchronous communication satellite could 47, No. 3 (March 1959); reprinted in Proceedings of the IEEE, be launched as early as the end of the 1950s. Vol. 85, No. 6 (June 1997). The first space communications activity can be traced to 5. Space Communications and Navigation 1958–1964, 1946, when the Army achieved radar contact with the moon. NASA SP-93 (1966). In 1954, the Navy began communications experiments using the moon as a passive reflector. By 1959, an operational 6. L. E. Johnson, “Satellite Communications in the Navy,” communication link was established between Hawaii and Proceedings of the 6th Space Congress, Vol. 2 (March 1969). Washington, D.C. This link was available 4 to 10 hr per day 7. Space Electronics Issue, Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. until 1963, when the program was stopped, apparently because 48, No. 4 (April 1960). of the progress in artificial, active communication satellites. 8. U.S. Army Space Issue, IRE Transactions on Military The first man-made communication satellite, Project Electronics, Vol. MIL-4, No. 2–3 (April–July 1960). SCORE, was launched in December 1958. Its operating life was limited to 12 days, when the batteries failed. By 1959, 9. “Communicating by Satellite,” Vectors (Hughes many articles on communication satellite topics began to Aircraft Co.), Vol. 8, No. 4 (4th Quarter 1966). appear in the technical journals [3–9]. Typical subjects of 10. Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite discussion were the merits of passive versus active satellites, Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA History Office, low versus synchronous altitude, and random orbital positions Washington, D.C. (1997). versus stationkeeping. In 1960, two journals published special 11. E. Slack. “A Brief History of Satellite Communications.” issues on space electronics with more than 10 articles on Pacific Telecommunications Review, Vol. 22, No. 1 (First communication satellites [7–8]. In the period from 1962 to Quarter 2001), available at http://web.ptc.org/library/ptr/pdf/ 1964, experimental programs using the medium-altitude 1q01.pdf (26 October 2004). Telstar and Relay satellites and the synchronous-altitude Syncom satellites proved the analytical predictions about 12. D. Whalen, “The Origins of Satellite Communications satellite communications and provided many convincing 1945–1965,” Paper 2003-0661, 41st AIAA Aerospace Sciences demonstrations [10–12]. These programs led to the beginning Meeting & Exhibit (Reston, VA, AIAA Inc., January 2003). of operational satellite communications in 1965 as well as to a continuing experimental effort that is still advancing the state of the art. * * * * * * *Over the years terminology has changed to geosynchronous orbit or geostationary orbit, the latter implying a low inclination (e.g. 5 deg or less, often 0.1 deg or less), which is almost always used in practice. In this book “synchronous orbit” is retained for older satellites but “geostationary orbit” is used for more recent satellites. 1 1. Experimental Satellites A lthough the performance of communication satellites Communication satellites have been in operational could be predicted theoretically, until 1962 or 1963 commercial and military service since 1965 and 1967, there was considerable doubt concerning whether their respectively. However, there was, and still is, the need for actual performance would match the theory. This was one of additional experimental satellites. These are used to prove new the basic motivations for the early communication satellite technologies for later introduction into operational satellites. experiments. Two other important factors were the desire Some satellites combine experimental objectives with to prove the satellite hardware (since space technology in preoperational demonstrations. Discussions of such satellites general was still in its infancy) and the need to test operational are included in this chapter if their emphasis is primarily procedures and ground equipment. Whereas the first few experimental; those directly continued by operational satellites experiments (SCORE, Courier, and Echo) were very brief are described in later chapters. beginnings, the Telstar, Relay, and Syncom satellites laid definite foundations for the first operational satellites. SCORE The first artificial communication satellite, called Project Orbit SCORE (Signal Communication by Orbiting Relay Equipment) 100 x 800 nmi, 32 deg inclination [1–5], was launched in December 1958. The primary objective of the project was to demonstrate that an Atlas missile could Orbital history be put into orbit. The secondary objective was to demonstrate Launched 18 December 1958, battery failed 30 December a communications repeater. 1958 The entire communication subsystem was developed in 6 Decayed 21 January 1959 months by modifying commercial equipment. Two redundant Atlas B launch vehicle sets of equipment were mounted in the nose of the missile. Four antennas were mounted flush with the missile surface, Management two for transmission and two for reception. The subsystem Developed by ARPA; communications equipment built by Army was designed to operate for the expected 21-day orbital life Signal Research and Development Laboratory, Ft. Monmouth, of the missile. Because of the short lifetime, batteries alone New Jersey were the power source; thus, the complexity of solar cells and Each half of the communication subsystem had a tape recorder rechargeable batteries was avoided. The details about SCORE with a 4 min capacity. Any of the four ground stations in the are as follows. southern United States could command the satellite into a Satellite playback mode to transmit the stored message or into a record Communications equipment integral with Atlas launch vehicle mode to receive and store a new message. A real-time mode was also available in which the recorder was bypassed. About 99 lb equipment 8 hr of actual operation occurred before the batteries failed. Silver-zinc batteries, 56 W maximum load During this time, voice, single-channel teletype, and frequency- multiplexed six-channel teletype signals were transmitted to Capacity the satellite, recorded, stored, and later retransmitted. One of One voice or six teletype channels the signals handled in this manner was a Christmas message Real-time and store-dump modes from President Eisenhower. In addition to the stored-mode transmissions, there were several real-time transmissions Transmitter through the satellite. 132 MHz, 8 W output * * * * * * All vacuum tubes Receiver 150 MHz, 10 dB noise figure All transistors Receiver Control Recorder Antenna Four slots (two transmit, two receive) C Transmitter –1 dB gain Recorder C 4 min capacity, 300–5000 Hz band Life Redundant, identical to above Two weeks Fig. 1.1. SCORE communication subsystem. 3 Experimental Satellites 1. S. P. Brown and G. F. Senn, “Project SCORE,” 4. S. P. Brown, “The ATLAS-SCORE Communication Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 48, No. 4 (April 1960). System,” Proceedings of the 3rd National Convention on Military Electronics (June 1959). 2. S. P. Brown, “Project SCORE: Signal Communication by Orbiting Relay Equipment,” IRE Transactions of Military 5. D. Davis, “The Talking Satellite. A Reminiscence of Electronics, Vol. MIL-4, No. 2–3 (April–July 1960). Project SCORE,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 52, No. 7–8 (July–August 1999). 3. M. I. Davis and G. N. Krassner, “SCORE—First Communication Satellite,” Journal of the American Rocket Society, Vol. 4 (May 1959). Echo During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the relative merits Management of passive and active communication satellites were often Developed by G. T. Schjeldahl Company (balloon), Grumman discussed. Passive satellites merely reflect incident radiation, (dispenser) for NASA (National Aeronautics and Space whereas active satellites have equipment that receives, Administration) Langley Research Center (Echo 1), NASA processes (may be only amplification and frequency translation, Goddard Space Flight Center (Echo 2). or may include additional operations), and retransmits incident Echo 1 was used for picture, data, and voice transmissions radiation. At the time of Project Echo, the main advantages between a number of ground terminals in the United States. given for passive satellites were In addition, some transmissions from the United States • very wide bandwidths were received in England. Numerous modulation methods • multiple-access capability were tested during the Echo 1 experiments, and valuable • no chance for degradations caused by failures of satellite experience was gained in the preparation and operation of the electronics terminals, especially in tracking the satellites. In addition to the communications experiments, Echo 1 was used for radar The disadvantages were and optical measurements, and its orbital data were used to • lack of signal amplification calculate atmospheric density. • relatively large orbit perturbations resulting from solar Echo 2 had a slightly different design to provide a stiffer and atmospheric effects (because of the large surface-to- and longer lasting spherical surface. It was used very little for weight ratio) communications, although some one-way transmissions were • difficulty in maintaining the proper reflector shape made from England to the Soviet Union. It was primarily used The progress in active satellites soon overshadowed in scientific investigations similar to those performed with the possible advantages of passive satellites, and interest in Echo 1. passive satellites ceased in the mid-1960s. In the mid-1970s, * * * * * * there was some interest in passive satellites concerning their use in a nuclear-war environment. 1. Space Communications and Navigation 1958–1964, Project Echo [1–12] produced two large spherical passive NASA SP-93 (1966). satellites that were launched in 1960 and 1964. The details of 2. Special Issue on Project Echo, Bell System Technical Echo are as follows. Journal, Vol. 40, No. 4 (July 1961). Satellite 3. Satellite Communications (Military-Civil Roles and Echo 1: sphere, 100 ft diam, 166 lb Relationships), second report by the Committee on Government Echo 2: sphere, 135 ft diam, 547 lb Operations, U.S. House of Representatives, House Report No. 178 (17 March 1968). Not stabilized, no onboard propulsion Aluminized Mylar surface, maximum reflectivity 98% for 4. H. S. Black, “Latest Results on Project Echo,” Advances frequencies up to 20 GHz in the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. 8 (1961). 5. J. R. Burke, “Passive Satellite Development and Frequencies Technology,” Astronautics and Aerospace Engineering, Vol. 1, Echo 1: 960 and 2390 MHz No. 8 (September 1963). Echo 2: 162 MHz 6. L. Jaffe, “Project Echo Results,” Astronautics, Vol. 6, Orbit No. 5 (May 1961). Echo 1: 820 x 911 nmi, 48.6 deg inclination (initial values) 7. W. C. Nyberg, “Experiments to Determine Echo 2: 557 x 710 nmi, 85.5 deg inclination (initial values) Communication Capability of the Echo II Satellite,” Publications of Goddard Space Flight Center 1964, Vol. II. Orbital history 8. D. H. Hamilton Jr. et al., “Transcontinental Unnumbered: launch vehicle failure 13 May 1960 Satellite Television Transmission,” Proceedings of the IRE Echo 1: launched 12 August 1960, decayed 25 May 1968 (Correspondence section), Vol. 50, No. 6 (June 1962). Echo 2: launched 25 January 1964, decayed 7 June 1969 9. A. Wilson, “A History of Balloon Satellites,” Journal Delta launch vehicle of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 34, No. 1 (January 1981). 4

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