Colle Advocacy and Interventions

444 Pages·2007·6.9 MB·English

Advocacy and Interventions

READINGS IN
COMMUNICATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Royal D. Colle
The Internet-First University Press
Ithaca, New York
2007
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AdvocAcy And InterventIons by Royal C. Colle
Table of Contents
Part I. Approaches To Communication
and Development
1. Introduction to Development Communication ...................................1
2. The “dominant paradigm” and development communication..........61
3. Participation in development communication..................................107
4. Information, education and communication (IEC) in health
initiatives .............................................................................................161
5. Communication in Social Marketing ................................................195
6. Information and communication technology for development
(ICT4D) ...............................................................................................217
7. Gender issues and communication for development .......................299
Part II. Communication Strategy: Techniques and Tools
8. Designing communication strategies.................................................333
9. Tools for communication initiatives: about media and methods ... 381
10. Research and evaluation ...................................................................415
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FOREWORD

This is intended to be a "practical" book. It is filled with examples and case studies that
illustrate ways that carefully planned and implemented communication interventions have
produced positive results. It is also filled with ideas from people who have experienced the
challenges of communicating effectively in development programs. We are indebted to them and I
am pleased to provide their ideas – frequently in their own words – to the readers of this book,
and provide web links to their works. In spinning all of these valuable resources together I have
added my own insights based on almost four decades of communication and development
experience in countries ranging from Guatemala to Western Samoa, with many other stops in
Asia, Africa and Latin America.
As the 21st century rolled out, communication in relation to development became more
prominent in the international community. Efforts to reach the Millennium Development Goals
sharpened our attention on communication with many asking how the new information and
communication technologies could accelerate progress toward the Goals.
In 2003 we saw Part 1 of the World Summit on the Information Society in Geneva; and in
2005 there was Part 2 of WSIS in Tunis. In 2006, the World Bank, the Communication Initiative,
and the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization organized the World Congress on
Communication for Development in Rome – hosted there by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the
Government of Italy.
The World Congress adopted a description of communication for development that
serves as a good framework for the material that appears in Advocacy and Interventions:
Communication for Development . . .
Is, first and foremost, about people and the process needed to facilitate their sharing of
knowledge and perceptions in order to effect positive developmental change - media
and technology are tools to this end, but not ends in themselves.
Is based on dialogue, which is necessary to promote stakeholders' participation. Such
participation is needed in order to understand stakeholder perceptions, perspectives,
values, attitudes and practices so they can be incorporated into the design and
implementation of development initiatives.
Follows the two-way, horizontal model and not the traditional one-way, vertical model of
Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver and increasingly makes use of emerging many-to-
many forms of communication made possible through new technologies. Even when
used along more unidirectional models (e.g., campaigns), communication needs to
facilitate the understanding and taking into account of people's perceptions, priorities
and knowledge.
Gives voice to those most affected by the development issue(s) at stake, allowing them
to participate directly in defining and implementing solutions and identifying
development directions.
Recognizes that reality is largely socially constructed. The implications are that there
can be different realities (or different perceptions of the same reality) for the same
situation according to specific groups' perceptions and needs. Thus the role of
development and by extension communication is not to "impose" the correct reality, but
rather to foster dialogue to facilitate mutual understanding among different
perspectives. Communication for development therefore, respects and works with the
different social, religious and cultural foundations of the people, communities and
nations engaged in development processes.
Is contextual. There is no universal formula capable of addressing all situations and
therefore it should be applied according to the cultural, social and economic context.
Uses a number of tools, techniques, media and methods to facilitate mutual
understanding, define and bridge differences of perceptions, and take action towards
change, according to the particular needs of the development initiative. These tools and
techniques should be used in an integrated way and are most effective when used at
the beginning of development initiatives.
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Advocacy and Interventions provides a rather optimistic view as to what a well-organized
systematic communication effort can contribute to development. For those who might ask "does it
really work," I defer to Bill Smith, Executive Vice President at the Academy for Educational
Development in Washington, who addressed this question in an Internet discussion.
The fact is: to ask "does communication work?" is the same as asking "does surgery
work?" What's the answer?
Surgery works – but not to design houses.
Communication works but not to change complex behavior by itself.
Surgery does not always work – sometimes patients die.
Communication does not always work – sometimes programs fail.
When a particular surgical intervention fails we do not ask – "does surgery work?", but
rather "what went wrong." There are usually three answers:
• patient was too far along – no one could have saved him
• surgery was not the right intervention
• the surgeon screwed up.
When a communication intervention fails we have the same three answers:
• problem was too complex for communication alone
• communication was the wrong thing to do
• the program was a mess, which in our case usually means:
- not enough exposure -wrong audience
- wrong message -wrong channels
- poor or no research -not enough time to show effect
- evaluation strategy too blunt to catch the change
When surgeons are asked to perform surgery in the dark, on a cement floor, using
screw drivers for instruments they don't usually call that surgery (cid:237) that's murder.
When we are asked to change the complex behavior of millions of men and women and
are given budgets of thousands of dollars instead of millions; when we are told we can't
talk about sex openly on the media; cut off from working with young adults explicitly
about sex; told there is not time to do adequate market research (cid:237) we say "well OK I
guess I'll call that a communication campaign, but I know we could do better."
When we ask for adequate resources, we are not whining; we are reflecting the lessons
learned about how important light, and surgical tools, and a decent working position is
for a surgeon (cid:237) we are reflecting our work as professionals rather than pretending we
are alchemists. I don't think it is fair to be critical of communication folks who say "we
need more money"(cid:237) we do a lot more if they want effects!
It might be more helpful to find examples of programs that have worked and show how
much they did cost (cid:237) so we could begin to develop a bottom line for what responsible
communication [interventions] need. We do this for vaccines (cid:237) no sensible public
health doc is going to promise effective immunization if we deny them a cold chain….
This is not the ramblings of tired old advocate (cid:237) but of a social scientist deeply skeptical
about communication who would like to see our field move forward and not be
anchored to the same old tired questions. We fail so often in communications (cid:237) we
need to get better (cid:237) but lord knows we have also succeeded and we have
learned much....
Tell those decision makers that they have never yet invested in anything in
development that was a "sure thing" (cid:237) not the dams in Brazil, nor the poisoned wells in
Bangladesh, nor the one time immunization campaigns that exhausted health systems
(cid:237) not the bare foot doctor (cid:237) nor community mobilization (cid:237) nor community action. None
of those interventions work for sure (cid:237) nor all the time (cid:237) nor have proven very good
investments.
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Here among ourselves on this [Internet] list we can do more than try to answer foolish
questions. If there are less experienced donors signed on [to this list] then let them
listen to intelligent discussion of real issues so they can grow in understanding the
demands of modern communication science. Let's move on to build a solid science
base for a wonderful community of exceptionally committed and creative individuals.

We hope Advocacy and Interventions helps us move on. But first some explanations.
Advocacy and Interventions is less profound a book than those of others who write about
development and communication theory. The book simply reflects what has been and is
happening in this field in the field (cid:237) and provides some practical and field-tested methods for
using communication strategically and effectively in development initiatives. Included are the
wisdom and experience of many who have worked in on communication and development.
Because some readers will obtain this book via the Internet, pictures and graphics has been kept
to a minimum to avoid a lengthy downloading process. Those who might find it more convenient
to have Advocacy and Interventions on a CD are invited to contact the author. The text provides
many links to excellent and free on-line materials (including videos) that can be downloaded to
supplement this book. Many of these on-line items will provide raw material that readers can use
to generate their own insights and plans as they apply communication to such humanitarian
challenges as extreme poverty, agricultural development, and the Millennium Development
Goals.

R.D.C.
May 2007

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Royal Colle has been a member of the Cornell University faculty for more than 40 years, 10 of
which were as Chair of the Communication Department. He has lived and worked abroad in
countries ranging from India and Indonesia to Singapore and Guatemala. Colle has served as a
consultant for a variety of international organizations including the World Bank, WHO, FAO, the
UN, UNFPA, UNESCO, USAID, DFID (U.K.) and the Ford Foundation. His work has focused on
the design of communication strategies especially in agriculture and health, the innovative uses of
information technology for development, and institution building related to communication. He
continues to teach, write and work on projects such as university-supported telecenters in
Vietnam, India, and Africa. He is International Professor Emeritus at Cornell where he earned a
PhD in Sociology. He can be contacted at Communication Department, Kennedy Hall, Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York USA 14853. E-mail: [email protected]

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chapter 1 | Introduction to Development Communication

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION

I. SOME PERSPECTIVES ON DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION
Communication is a vital partner in initiatives that involve voluntary behavior change. The two words
"voluntary" and "behavior" are very important in understanding what unfolds in the pages that follow. Where
behavior is forced, communication may be necessary for reminding people of the rules or in training them to
carry out the behavior. However, most of the effort we put into development initiatives involves people's
voluntary actions. In this context (cid:795) and used broadly (cid:795) the word behavior covers a wide variety of
phenomena, ranging from believing something will improve a family's welfare to using a condom, or adopting
(or avoiding) biotechnology-developed seed varieties. Where people have options to change their ways of
life, communication becomes important in informing, persuading, listening, educating, training, learning, data
gathering and in managing change. Thus, we emphasize the idea that development communication is
"strategic communication." This approach has been applied to efforts to combat the HIV/AIDS problem:
Strategic communication is a promising response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic that has
been vastly underutilized to date. The systematic nature of strategic communication
contrasts sharply with the ad hoc practice of designing an occasional poster or radio spot
for a given cause. It combines a series of elements (cid:237) extensive use of data, careful
planning, stakeholder participation, creativity, high quality programming, and linkages
to other program elements and levels, among other (cid:237) that stimulate positive and
measurable behavior change among the intended audience.1
We begin abruptly at the 21st century (although we will go decades back in later parts of these
Readings) and look at some of the applications of communication in today's world. A good place to start is at
the G8 nations and the Millennium Development Goals. First, we review the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs).
The international community initially identified seven MDGs (now there are eight) that are at the
heart of the fight against poverty and the struggle to create opportunity, prosperity, health, safety and
empowerment for all the world’s people, especially the poorest and traditionally marginalized groups. The
eight MDGs are:2
1. Reduce the proportion of people living in extreme poverty by half between 1990 and 2015.
2. Enroll all children in primary school by 2015.
3. Make progress toward gender equality and empowering women by eliminating gender
disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005.
4. Reduce infant and child mortality rates by two-thirds between 1990 and 2015.
5. Reduce maternal mortality ratios by three-quarters between 1990 and 2015.
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases, halting and reversing their levels by 2015.
7. Implement national strategies for sustainable development by 2005 so as to reverse the loss of
environmental resources by 2015.
8. Develop a global partnership for development.
Goal 8 includes within it the task of making more widely available the benefits of information and
communication technologies – in cooperation with the private sector. In addition to the Goals, there are more
specific, quantified targets for the year 2015. For example, in relation to Goal 1, there are two targets: (1)
Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than one dollar a day; (2) Cut
in half, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger.3 Some countries have
incorporated the MDGs into national policies. For example, many nations have prepared Poverty Reduction
Strategy Papers (PRSPs) that are "roadmaps" those countries expect to use for reaching the goal of
reducing extreme poverty.4

1 N. McKee, J. Bertrand, & A. Becker-Benton, Strategic Communication in the HIV/AIDS Epidemic, Sage, New Delhi,
2004.
2 For a discussion of each goal and progress towards the 2015 target date, see The Millennium Development Goals
Report 2006 at http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2006/MDGReport2006.pdf.
3 See a complete list of the goals, targets and indicators at: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp.
4 See: http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/prsp.htm
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Emergence of communication as a development tool
For decades it has seemed imperative and challenging to get decision-makers to incorporate a
communication component (cid:237) and funding (cid:237)into agricultural, health or other development programs. To some
extent reluctance exists today as governments reduce the amount of funding they provide for agricultural
extension and debate the relative demands for clinics and roads and those for computers and broadband
connectivity. However, while this struggle has not yet been completely won, there are significant signs that
communication is more consistently being factored into development initiatives. It appears that the
enormous advances made during the past two decades in digital technology including the high visibility of
cell phones, portable computers, and other devices have aroused more acceptance of information and
communication as important partners in development initiatives. A quick tour around the international
community supports this position. In 2005, the Economic Commission for Africa released a document
Benchmarking the Plan of Action of the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) in which it
addressed the information and communication infrastructure as an essential foundation for the Information
Society (cid:795) and explored the enabling environment for a various elements making up the e-World (such as
e-Government and e-Health).
In mid-2000, the eight major industrial nations (the G8) acknowledged that information and
communication technology (ICT) “is one of the most potent forces in shaping the twenty-first century [and] its
revolutionary impact affects the way people live, learn and work, and the way government interacts with civil
society.” Emerging from the discussion was the Okinawa Charter on the Global Information Society. Its framers
announced that “this Charter represents a call to all, in both the public and private sectors, to bridge the
international information and knowledge divide.” The Charter also renewed a commitment of the G8 nations “to the
principle of inclusion: everyone everywhere should be enabled to participate in and no one should be excluded
from the benefits of the global information society.” The G8 launched a major effort to strengthen all nations’
potential to be part of this Information Age starting with a Digital Opportunity Task Force.5 The DOT noted the
relationship between high priority international development goals (such as the MDGs) and communication and
emphasized that "Harnessing the power of information and communication technologies (ICT) can contribute
substantially to realizing every one of these goals; either directly (e.g. through greater availability of health and
reproductive information, training of medical personnel and teachers, giving opportunity and voice to women,
expanding access to education and training) or indirectly (through creating new economic opportunities that lift
individuals, communities and nations out of poverty.) Creating digital opportunities is not something that happens
after addressing the “core” development challenges; it is a key component of addressing those challenges in the
21st century. The report detailed four major thrusts for concerted international action:
1. Foster Policy, Regulatory and Network Readiness – through establishing and supporting both developing
country and emerging economy National eStrategies including eGovernment, and universal participation in new
international policy and technical issues raised by ICT and the Internet.
2. Improve Connectivity Increasing Access and Lowering Costs – through establishing and supporting
a range of targeted interventions as well as dedicated initiatives for the ICT inclusion of the Least Developed
Countries.
3. Build Human Capacity – through a range of targeted training, education, knowledge creation and
sharing initiatives, as well as promote ICT for healthcare and in support against HIV/AIDS and other
infectious and communicable diseases.
4. Encourage Participation in Global eCommerce and other eNetworks – through enterprise and
entrepreneurship for sustainable economic development, including poverty alleviation, and promote national
and international effort to support the creation of local content and applications.
It should be clear at this point that a major catalyst for incorporating communication in development
strategies are the newer information technologies, including computers, data banks, and networks. 6
Another effort prompted by the G8 Okinawa meeting was a report by the Digital Opportunity Initiative
(DOI).The title of the report is Creating a Development Dynamic, From Digital Divide to Digital Opportunities

5
The following material is drawn from Digital Opportunities for All: Meeting the Challenge; Report of the Digital
Opportunity Task Force, including a proposal for a Genoa Plan of Action, Washington, 2001.
6 Note that there is often an inference that ICTs are the new digital technologies. In our approach, we broaden the term
"ICT" to include such information technologies as radio, video and print media. One of the interesting dynamics of the
ICT environment is that some of these media/technologies are converging, a point we will explore further in Chapter 6.
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