Cognitive Science

409 Pages·1999·3.87 MB·English

by  Benjamin Martin Bly, David E. Rumelhart

Cognitive Science
Handbook of Perception and Cognition
2nd Edition
Series Editors
Edward C. Carterette
and Morton P. Friedman
Cognitive Science
Edited by
Benjamin Martin Bly
Department of Psychology
Rutgers University
Newark,New Jersey
David E. Rumelhart
Department of Psychology
Stanford University
Stanford,California
Academic Press
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Copyright ©1999 by ACADEMIC PRESS
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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 99-60977
International Standard Book Number: 0-12-601730-1
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
99 00 01 02 03 04 BB 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Contributors xi
Foreword xiii
Preface xv
1
Coordinate Transformations in the Genesis
of Directed Action
C.R.Gallistel
I.Introduction 1
A. Coordinate Transformations 2
B.Two Contrasting Conceptions 5
II. Directed Limb Movements 8
A. Kinematics 8
B.Dynamics 11
C. Conclusions 22
III.Saccadic Eye Movements 24
A. Integrator Coordinates:A Neurally Imposed Framework 24
B.The Representation of Saccades in the Superior Colliculus 29
IV. Concluding Remarks 37
References 39
2
Attention
David LaBerge
I.A Cognitive Neuroscience Framework for Viewing Attention 44
A. Goals of Attention 45
v
vi Contents
B.Manifestations of Attention 46
C. Problems To Be Solved by Attentional Processing 48
D. Summary of the Present Cognitive Neuroscience
Framework for Understanding the Attention Process 49
II. Developmental Issues and Methods in the Study ofVisual Attention 49
A. Theory of Orienting 51
B.Brain Models ofVisual Orienting 52
C. Enhancements of Activity in Brain Structures Serving
Eye Movements 54
D.Enhancement of Activity in Brain Maps of Spatial Location 55
E. Prefrontal Cortical Influences on Visuospatial Orienting 56
F.A Neural View of Attentional Shifts in Visual Space 57
G.Selective Attention in Adults 60
H.Selective Attention in the Child 62
I.Development of Attention to Actions 62
J.Developmental Aging 64
III. The Evolution of Attentional Structures 67
A. Anterior Brain Structures:Attention to Actions 67
B.The Evolution of the Prefrontal Cortex and Attention 69
C. The Evolution of the Supplemental Motor Area
and the Anterior Cingulate Cortex 70
D. The Evolution of Posterior Brain Structures 72
IV. Cultural Influences on Attention 75
V.Computational Conceptualizations and Models of Attention 77
A. Is Attentional Processing Dispensible in Principle? 77
B.Computational Models of Attention 78
C. The Problem of Attentional Maintenance 80
IV. Philosophical Approaches to Attention 82
A. Philosophy’s Synoptic Perspective 82
B.Philosophical Understanding of Attention 83
C. Philosophy’s Geography of Concepts 83
D. Formal Methods of Explanation 85
E.Traditional Philosophical Views of Attention 85
F.Current Philosophical Approaches to Attention 87
VII.Final Comment 89
References 89
3
Categorization
Douglas L.Medin and Evan Heit
I.Overview 99
A. Current State of Affairs 99
B.Brief History 100
C. Ecological Validity and Artificial versus Natural Categories 101
D.Summary 103
Contents vii
II. Methods of Inquiry 103
A. Evolutionary 103
B.Philosophical 108
C. Developmental 110
D. Cross-Cultural Comparisons 114
E.Computational 118
F.Neuroscience 131
III.Challenges and Opportunities 132
A. Challenges 132
B.Opportunities 134
Acknowledgments 134
References 134
4
Reasoning
Kenneth J.Kurtz,Dedre Gentner,and Virginia Gunn
I. Reasoning 145
A. An Introductory Framework 145
B.Kinds of Reasoning 146
II. Reasoning by Formal Systems:Weak Methods 149
A. Reasoning with Propositions:Basic Phenomena 149
B.Rule-Based Theories 151
C. Reasoning by Mental Models 155
D.Pragmatic Reasoning Schemas 160
E. Social Contract Theory 164
III.Reasoning by Similarity:Strong Methods 166
A. Reasoning by Categorization 167
B.Reasoning across Categories:Category-Based Induction 168
C. Statistical Inference 172
D. Reasoning by Heuristics 173
E.Connectionist Inference 174
IV. Structural Alignment in Reasoning 175
A. Reasoning by Analogy 175
B.Reasoning by Categories Revisited 180
C. Reasoning by Rules Revisited 184
D.How Do the Different Views of Reasoning
Fit Together? 188
V. Summary and Discussion 190
References 191
5
Cognitive Development
Susan Carey and Ellen M.Markman
I. The Nativist–Empiricist Debate 202
A. Case 1:The Object Concept 203
B.Case 2:The Origin of Mathematical Knowledge 209
viii Contents
C. The Representation of Number—Continuity
or Discontinuity 212
II. Constraints on Learning—Lessons from Ethology 217
III.Constraints on Word Learning 219
IV. Lessons about Cognitive Architecture from Developmental Studies
of Domain Specificity 221
V.Beyond Innate Constraints—Theory Change,Conceptual Change 226
VI. Infant Representations—Perceptual or Conceptual? 229
A. Spelke’s Arguments for Conceptual Abilities in Infancy 229
B.Mandler’s Arguments for Conceptual Representations
in Infancy 231
C. Leslie’s View on Conceptual Abilities in Infants 234
D.Perceptual versus Conceptual Representations—Conclusions 236
VII.Maturation,Critical Periods,and the “Less-Is-More”Hypothesis 237
VIII.Appeals to Maturation in Explaining Developmental Change 237
IX.Critical Periods in Development:Language Acquisition 240
X.Possible Cognitive Benefits of Immaturity:The Less-Is-More
Hypothesis 242
A. Language Acquisition 242
B.Perceptual Development 246
C. Inhibition:Development of the Frontal Cortex 246
D. Holistic versus Analytic Approaches to Categorization 247
XI.Some Final Concluding Remarks 248
References 249
6
The Brain Basis of Syntactic Processes:
Architecture, Ontogeny, and Phylogeny
Michael D.Patterson and Benjamin Martin Bly
I.Introduction 255
II. Part 1:The Brain Architecture of Syntactic Processes Historical
Background 255
A. Separating Syntax from Other Language Subcomponents 257
B.Role of Broca’s,Wernicke’s,and Other Areas of the Brain
in Syntactic Processing 258
C. Role of Broca’s and Other Anterior Brain Areas in Syntactic
Processing 258
D. Role of Prefrontal Cortex 265
E.Summary of Role of Anterior Areas of Brain in Syntactic
Processing 266
F.Role of Posterior Areas in Syntactic Processing 268
G.Nonclassical Areas Involved in Syntactic Processing 269
H.Role of Imaging and Lesion Data in Determining Brain
Areas Involved in Syntactic Processing 274
Contents ix
I.General Limitations of Lesion Studies 274
J.Limitations of Using Lesions to Study the Neural
Substrates of Syntactic Processing 275
K.Limitations of Imaging Syntactic Processing in the Brain 276
III. Part 2:Ontogeny of the Neural Substrates of Syntactic Processing 280
A. Evidence from Language Acquisition 281
B.Arguments That Syntax Is Learned by Normal Children
with Typical Language Input 283
C. Evidence from Language Acquisition in Children
without Typical Language Input 284
D.Language Acquisition in Children with Focal Lesions
but Regular Language Input 287
E.Summary of Language Acquisition Studies 288
IV. Part 3:Phylogeny 289
A. Evolutionary Origins of Syntax 289
B.Evidence of Linguistic and Syntactic Precursors
in Living Species 292
C. Language Teaching Experiments in Chimps 295
D.Future Ape Language Teaching Study Suggestions 298
E. Origins of the First Words 298
F.Language and Syntax Were Originally Selected
for What Survival Purpose? 301
G.Similarity of Categorical Processing and Syntactic
Processing 301
H.Role ofTheory of Mind in Language and Syntax
Development 303
I. Povinelli and Eddy (1996) Experiment 304
J.Critiques of Povinelli and Eddy (1996) Experiment 304
K.Comparison of Processing Used to Maintain Social
Relationships and Syntactic Processing 305
L. Link between Tool Use and Syntactic Processing 307
M.Summary of Possible Neural Preadaptions for Syntactic
Processing 308
N.Areas of the Brain That Changed to Support Syntactic
Processing 308
V. Conclusion 312
References 312
7
The Cognitive Neuroscience Approach
Kevin N.Ochsner and Stephen M.Kosslyn
I.Foundations of Cognitive Neuroscience 321
A. The Cognitive Neuroscience Approach 322
B.The Isolable Systems Problem 325