Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience

497 Pages·2014·48.113 MB·English

by  E. Bruce Goldstein

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E. Bruce Goldstein
University of Pittsburgh
University of Arizona
Cognitive Psychology
Connecting Mind, Research, and
Everyday Experience
4th Edition
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Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, © 2015, 2011 Cengage Learning
and Everyday Experience, 4th Edition
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E. Bruce Goldstein
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To Barbara
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About the Author
E. BRUCE GOLDSTEIN is Associate Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University
of Pittsburgh and Adjunct Professor of Psychology at the University of Arizona. He has
received the Chancellor’s Distinguished Teaching Award from the University of Pittsburgh
for his classroom teaching and textbook writing. He received his bachelor’s degree in chemi-
cal engineering from Tufts University and his PhD in experimental psychology from Brown
University. He was a postdoctoral fellow in the Biology Department at Harvard University
before joining the faculty at the University of Pittsburgh. Bruce has published papers on a
wide variety of topics, including retinal and cortical physiology, visual attention, and the per-
ception of pictures. He is the author of Sensation and Perception , 9th edition (Wadsworth/
Cengage, 2014) and is the editor of the Blackwell Handbook of Perception (Blackwell, 2001)
and the two-volume S age Encyclopedia of Perception (Sage, 2010).
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Brief Contents
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Cognitive Psychology.........................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 2
Cognitive Neuroscience ..................................................................................................................................24
CHAPTER 3
Perception ............................................................................................................................................................50
CHAPTER 4
Attention ...............................................................................................................................................................84
CHAPTER 5
Short-Term and Working Memory ............................................................................................................118
CHAPTER 6
Long-Term Memory: Structure ...................................................................................................................150
CHAPTER 7
Long-Term Memory: Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation ........................................................178
CHAPTER 8
Everyday Memory and Memory Errors ...................................................................................................206
CHAPTER 9
Knowledge ........................................................................................................................................................244
CHAPTER 10
Visual Imagery ...................................................................................................................................................274
CHAPTER 11
Language ...........................................................................................................................................................296
CHAPTER 12
Problem Solving ..............................................................................................................................................334
CHAPTER 13
Judgment, Decisions, and Reasoning .....................................................................................................368
GLOSSARY .........................................................................................................................................................402
REFERENCES .....................................................................................................................................................427
NAME INDEX ....................................................................................................................................................447
SUBJECT INDEX ...............................................................................................................................................454
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Contents
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Cognitive Psychology.........................................................................................................2
Cognitive Psychology: Studying the Mind .................................................................................................4
What Is the Mind? ............................................................................................................................................5
Studying the Mind: Early Work in Cognitive Psychology .................................................................5
Abandoning the Study of the Mind ..............................................................................................................9
Watson Founds Behaviorism ......................................................................................................................9
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning ..............................................................................................................10
Setting the Stage for the Reemergence of the Mind in Psychology .........................................11
The Rebirth of the Study of the Mind ........................................................................................................12
Introduction of the Digital Computer ...................................................................................................12
Conferences on Artificial Intelligence and Information Theory ..................................................13
The Cognitive “Revolution” Took a While ............................................................................................14
Looking Ahead ...............................................................................................................................................14
Modern Research in Cognitive Psychology .............................................................................................15
Following a Trail: How Research Progresses From One Question to Another ......................15
The Role of Models in Cognitive Psychology .....................................................................................17
Something to Consider: Learning From This Book ...............................................................................20
TEST YOURSELF 1.1 ...................................................................................................................................................................21
Chapter Summary ...............................................................................................................................................................21
Think About It ......................................................................................................................................................................22
Key Terms ...............................................................................................................................................................................22
CogLab Experiment ...........................................................................................................................................................22
CHAPTER 2
Cognitive Neuroscience ..................................................................................................................................24
Why Study Cognitive Neuroscience? .........................................................................................................27
Neurons: Communication and Representation .....................................................................................28
The Microstructure of the Brain: Neurons ............................................................................................28
The Signals That Travel in Neurons .........................................................................................................30
Method: Recording From a Neuron ...................................................................................................31
The Principle of Neural Representation ................................................................................................33
Representation by Neurons ...........................................................................................................................33
Representation by Single Neurons .........................................................................................................34
Sensory Coding ..............................................................................................................................................35
TEST YOURSELF 2.1 ...................................................................................................................................................................38
Organization: Neuropsychology and Recording From Neurons .....................................................39
Localization Demonstrated by Neuropsychology ...........................................................................39
Method: Demonstrating a Double Dissociation ...........................................................................40
Localization Demonstrated by Recording From Neurons .............................................................40
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Organization: Brain Imaging..........................................................................................................................41
Method: Brain Imaging ...........................................................................................................................41
Brain Imaging Evidence for Localization of Function ......................................................................42
Distributed Representation Across the Brain .....................................................................................44
All Together Now: Neural Networks ...........................................................................................................45
Something to Consider: What Neuroscience Tells Us About Cognition .......................................46
TEST YOURSELF 2.2 ...................................................................................................................................................................47
Chapter Summary ...............................................................................................................................................................48
Think About It ......................................................................................................................................................................48
Key Terms ...............................................................................................................................................................................49
CogLab Experiment ...........................................................................................................................................................49
CHAPTER 3
Perception ............................................................................................................................................................50
The Nature of Perception ................................................................................................................................52
Some Basic Characteristics of Perception ............................................................................................52
Perceiving a Scene ........................................................................................................................................53
Demonstration: Perceptual Puzzles in a Scene .............................................................................54
Why Is It So Difficult to Design a Perceiving Machine? .......................................................................57
The Stimulus on the Receptors Is Ambiguous ...................................................................................57
Objects Can Be Hidden or Blurred ..........................................................................................................57
Objects Look Different From Different Viewpoints .........................................................................58
Information for Human Perception ............................................................................................................59
Perceiving Objects ........................................................................................................................................59
Demonstration: Finding Faces in a Landscape ..............................................................................60
Hearing Words in a Sentence ....................................................................................................................60
Experiencing Pain .........................................................................................................................................61
TEST YOURSELF 3.1 ...................................................................................................................................................................63
Conceptions of Object Perception ..............................................................................................................63
Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference ..................................................................................63
The Gestalt Principles of Organization..................................................................................................64
Taking Regularities of the Environment Into Account ....................................................................67
Demonstration: Visualizing Scenes and Objects ..........................................................................69
Bayesian Inference ........................................................................................................................................70
Comparing the Four Approaches ...........................................................................................................71
TEST YOURSELF 3.2 ...................................................................................................................................................................72
Neurons and Knowledge About the Environment ...............................................................................72
Neurons That Respond to Horizontals and Verticals .......................................................................72
Experience-Dependent Plasticity ...........................................................................................................73
The Interaction Between Perceiving and Taking Action ....................................................................74
Movement Facilitates Perception ............................................................................................................74
The Interaction of Perception and Action............................................................................................75
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The Physiology of Perception and Action ............................................................................................76
Method: Brain Ablation ..........................................................................................................................76
Picking Up a Coffee Cup and Other Behaviors ..................................................................................78
Something to Consider: Where Perception Meets Memory .............................................................79
Method: Recording From Single Neurons in Humans ................................................................79
TEST YOURSELF 3.3 ...................................................................................................................................................................80
Chapter Summary ...............................................................................................................................................................81
Think About It ......................................................................................................................................................................81
Key Terms ...............................................................................................................................................................................82
CogLab Experiments .........................................................................................................................................................83
CHAPTER 4
Attention ...............................................................................................................................................................84
Attention as Information Processing ..........................................................................................................87
Broadbent’s Filter Model of Attention ..................................................................................................87
Demonstration: Focusing on One Message ...................................................................................88
Modifying Broadbent’s Model: More Early Selection Models .....................................................89
A Late Selection Model ...............................................................................................................................91
Processing Capacity and Perceptual Load ...............................................................................................91
Demonstration: The Stroop Effect .....................................................................................................93
TEST YOURSELF 4.1 ...................................................................................................................................................................94
Attention as Selection: Overt and Covert Attention ............................................................................94
Overt Attention: Scanning a Scene With Eye Movements ............................................................95
Demonstration: Looking for a Face in a Crowd .............................................................................95
Demonstration: Looking Off to the Side .........................................................................................95
Covert Attention: Directing Attention Without Eye Movements ...............................................98
Method: Precueing ...................................................................................................................................99
Divided Attention: Can We Attend to More Than One Thing at a Time? ..................................100
Divided Attention Can Be Achieved With Practice:
Automatic Processing ................................................................................................................................101
Divided Attention Becomes More Difficult When Tasks Are Harder .......................................102
Distractions While Driving .......................................................................................................................102
TEST YOURSELF 4.2 ................................................................................................................................................................104
What Happens When We Don’t Attend? ...............................................................................................105
Inattentional Blindness ............................................................................................................................105
Change Detection ......................................................................................................................................106
Demonstration: Change Detection .................................................................................................106
What About Everyday Experience? ......................................................................................................107
Attention and Experiencing a Coherent World ...................................................................................109
Why Is Binding Necessary? ......................................................................................................................109
Feature Integration Theory ....................................................................................................................109
Demonstration: Searching for Conjunctions ................................................................................111
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Something to Consider: Taking Possession by the Brain ..................................................................112
TEST YOURSELF 4.3 .................................................................................................................................................................114
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................................................................115
Think About It ...................................................................................................................................................................116
Key Terms ............................................................................................................................................................................116
CogLab Experiments .......................................................................................................................................................117
CHAPTER 5
Short-Term and Working Memory ............................................................................................................118
The Modal Model of Memory .....................................................................................................................121
Sensory Memory ..............................................................................................................................................122
The Sparkler’s Trail and the Projector’s Shutter ...............................................................................122
Sperling’s Experiment: Measuring the Capacity and Duration of the Sensory Store ........124
Short-Term Memory........................................................................................................................................126
Method: Recall .........................................................................................................................................127
What Is the Duration of Short-Term Memory? .................................................................................127
Demonstration: Remembering Three Letters..............................................................................127
How Many Items Can Be Held in Short-Term Memory? ................................................................129
Demonstration: Digit Span..................................................................................................................129
Method: Change Detection ................................................................................................................129
Demonstration: Remembering Letters ..........................................................................................130
How Much Information Can Be Held in Short-Term Memory? ...................................................131
TEST YOURSELF 5.1 .................................................................................................................................................................132
Working Memory .............................................................................................................................................133
Demonstration: Reading Text and Remembering Numbers ................................................134
The Phonological Loop .............................................................................................................................135
Demonstration: Word Length Effect ...............................................................................................135
Demonstration: Articulatory Suppression ....................................................................................136
The Visuospatial Sketch Pad ....................................................................................................................136
Demonstration: Comparing Objects ...............................................................................................137
Demonstration: Recalling Visual Patterns .....................................................................................137
Demonstration: Holding a Spatial Stimulus in the Mind .........................................................138
The Central Executive ................................................................................................................................138
Method: Event-Related Potential ......................................................................................................139
The Episodic Buffer .....................................................................................................................................141
Working Memory and the Brain .................................................................................................................141
The Effect of Damage to the Prefrontal Cortex ...............................................................................142
Prefrontal Neurons That Hold Information .......................................................................................143
Holding Information in the Visual Cortex ..........................................................................................143
Method: Neural Mind Reading ..........................................................................................................145
Something to Consider: Math Performance and Working Memory ...........................................146
TEST YOURSELF 5.2 .................................................................................................................................................................147
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