cognitive, psycho-physiological and physical benefits of aerobic exercise and milk consumption ...

41 Pages·2017·8.86 MB·English

COGNITIVE, PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL
AND PHYSICAL BENEFITS OF AEROBIC EXERCISE
AND MILK CONSUMPTION AMONG FEMALE SECONDARY
SCHOOL STUDENTS

by

SEDIGHEH MOGHADDAM

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

July 2015
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My greatest gratitude to my dear God for all the blessings He has given me and the
doors He is opening for me truly blessed.
The completion of this thesis (and my doctoral degree) never would have been possible
without the help and support of many important and wonderful people in this journey.
So, I would like to take this opportunity to thank for their kind assistance at various
points during this research:
First and foremost, to my supervisor, Dr Hairul Anuar Hashim for your ceaseless
support, guidance help and encouragement at all times during this whole process. My
gratitude is boundless. It was a true pleasure to work with you. I greatly appreciate your
support and understanding me throughout this process and will never forget your
kindness.
I also would like to convey my gratitude to my co-supervisors, Associate Professor Dr.
Mohamed Rusli Abdullah and Dr. Mohd Nidzam Jawis for their support, kind
supervision and encouragement during data collection as well as for reviewing my thesis
and providing valuable guidance through my study.
In addition, I would like to express my gratitude to previous heads of Sport Science
Unit, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Chen Chee Keong for managing the sports science unit and
laboratory well so that I could access information and help whenever I need them. I also
would like to take this opportunity to extend my gratitude to all academic lecturers and
staffs of Sports Science Unit, Dr Ooi, Dr Ayu, Dr Garry, Dr Shazlin, Madam Nik
Sakinah and Mr Rosli for their constant supports and motivation.
I would like to express my greatest appreciation to Dr Julia Binti Omar, the Head of
Chemical Pathology Department for her kindness and supporting me during data
collection. My sincere thanks go to staffs of sport sciences laboratory, Madam
Jamaayah, Pn. Norlida and Nurhafizah for their valuable kindness and help especially
during the weekend and setting the purchase of the materials needed in this study.
I am thanking to the principals of the schools for giving permission to conduct the
study, namely, Hajah Zakiah bt Abdul Kadir, Hajah Maimunah bt Ismail, Hj. Mansor bt
Hj. Daud and Pn.Wan Jah bt Wan Yaacob. Without their corporations and helps, the
study would not have been completed. Then, I would like to thank my dearest
participants from secondary schools namely, Tengku Amalin, Naim Lilbanat, Maahad
Muhammadi and Zainab I, for participating in this study that without them, this study
would never have been materialized and also I would like to express my gratitude to
Madam Safinah bt Yusoff and Madam Zuriah bt Jaaffar as aerobic training coaches in
this study.
ii
Profound appreciation is extended to my dear Malaysian and Iranian friends specially
Mitra, Reihaneh, Mazuin, Soma, Hossein, Tyng and other students and friends for their
continuous supports during whole my study. I would like to thank every person (if I had
left out names) who had contributed and involved in this study directly or indirectly.
I owe thanks to my beloved family that without their encouragement and understanding
it would have been impossible for me to finish this work. My special gratitude is
extended my mother, my sisters, my brothers and their families for their support. Finally,
this thesis is dedicated to my beloved father for instilling the value of education in me.
The person who put the fundamental of my learning and showed me the intellectual
pursuit ever since I was a child. Thank you and may his soul rest in peace for his
persistent encouragement as I began this process, I regret he did not live long enough to
be present to see my prosperous.

iii
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
Table of Contents iv
LIST Of TABLES viii
LIST Of FIGURES xii
ABBREVIATIONS xiii
ABSTRAK xiv
ABSTRACT xvi
CHAPTER 1 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background and Scope of the Study 1
1.2 Conceptual Framework 5
1.3 Definition of Terms 10
`1.4 Objective of the study 12
1.4.1 General objective 12
1.4.2 Specific Objective 13
1.5 Research Hypothesis 14
1.6 Problem Statement 15
CHAPTER 2 16
LITERATURE REVIEW 16
2.1 Physical Activity and Exercise 16
2.1.1 Prevalence of Physical Activity among Adolescents 17
2.1.2 Aerobic Exercise 18
2.1.3 Importance of Physical Activity among School-Aged Adolescents 20
2.1.4 Promotion of Exercise from Within School Setting 22
2.2 Metabolic Health Indicators 23
2.2.1 Physical Activity and Metabolic Health Indicators 26
2.3 Relationship between Health and Academic Performance 29
iv
2.3.1 Physical Activity, Memory and Attention 32
2.4.1 Relationship between Physical Activity and Emotional Distress 36
2.5 The ACSM Guideline 37
2.6 Inconsistencies among Studies 46
2.7 Nutrition and Health 46
2.7.1 Importance of Nutrition 47
2.7.2 Importance of Nutrition during School Age 48
2.7.5 Review of Previous Studies 55
CHAPTER 3 61
METHODOLOGY 61
3.1 Study design 61
3.1.1 Study design for the preliminarily phase 61
3.2 Participants 63
Inclusion criteria 63
Exclusion criteria 63
3.3 Sample size 64
3.4 Research Instruments 64
3.4.1 Questionnaires 64
3.4.2 Blood sampling 68
3.4.3 Blood pressure 69
3.4.4 Maximal oxygen consumption (VO ) 70
2max
3.4.5 Muscular Power of the lower limb 71
3.4.6 Anthropometry measurement 73
3.4.7 Cognitive performance measurement 75
3.5 Subject briefing 80
3.6 Participants screening 81
3.7 Standardization of Groups 82
3.8 Familiarization 83
3.1.1.3 Baseline measurement 83
3.1.1.1 Experimental procedures for preliminarily phase 84
3.1.1.2 Intervention protocol for preliminarily phase 85
v
3.1.2 Study design for main phase 88
3.1.2.1 Participants, instrument and experimental measurement 90
3.9 Face validation of the methodology 91
3.10 Statistical analysis 91
3.10.1 Statistical analysis of methodology validation 91
3.10.2 Statistical analysis of the main phase 92
CHAPTER 4 93
RESULTS 93
4.1 Introduction 93
4.2 Participants characteristics 95
4.3 Results of preliminary phase 96
4.3.1 Basic Assumption 96
4.3.2 Body Fat Percentage and Waist Circumference 97
4.3.3 Blood Profile 101
4.3.4 Blood Pressure, Heart Rate and VO2max 104
4.3.5 Emotional distress 108
4.3.6 Cognitive Performance 111
4.3.7 Muscular Power of Lower Limb 119
4.4 Results of main phase 121
4.4.1 Basic Assumption 121
4.4.2 Body Fat Percentage and Waist Circumference 122
4.4.3 Blood Profile 126
4.4.4 Blood Pressure, Heart Rate and Maximal Oxygen Consumption 131
4.4.5 Emotional Distress 134
4.4.6 Cognitive Performance 137
4.4.7 Muscular Power of Lower Limb 145
CHAPTER 5 150
DISCUSSION 150
5.1 Metabolic Health Indicators 150
5.2 Emotional Distress 158
5.3 Memory and Attention 163
vi
5.4 Muscular Power of Lower Limb 168
CHAPTER 6 175
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 175
6.1 Conclusion 175
6.2 Recommendation 176
6.3 Limitation of study 177
REFERENCES 179

APPENDICES
Appendix A Results of Basic Assumption (Normality and Homogeneity variance)
and Pair Wise Comparisons
Appendix B Aerobic Exercise Program
Appendix C Questionnaires of Methodology Validation
Appendix D Ethical Approval from Universiti Sains Malaysia, Research Ethics
Committee
Appendix E Permission Letter from Ministry of Education of Malaysia
Appendix F Participation Information and Consent Form
Appendix G Questionnaires
Appendix H Cognitive Performance Task, Digit Span Test (DS) & Digit Vigilance
Test (DVT)

vii
LIST Of TABLES PAGES
Table 2.1 The CDC Classification of Children and Adolescents for 24
BMI
Table 3.1 International values of BMI index for normal 75
population of adolescents
Table 3.2 Components for Standardization of Groups 82
Table 3.3 Nutritional Information of Low Fat Milk in per 250ml 88
Table 4.1 Anthropometrical and Physiological characteristics of 95
participants in this research
Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics of Fat % and Waist Circumference 97
Across the Different Experimental Treatments and
Three Test Sessions
Table 4.3 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects on Fat% & Waist 98
Circumference Across the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.4 Pair Wise Comparisons for Fat% Score Across the 99
Measurement Sessions
Table 4.5 Pair Wise Comparisons for Waist circumference Across 100
the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.6 Descriptive Statistics of TG, TC, HDL-C, LDL-C and FBS 101
Level Across the Different Experimental Treatments and
Two Test Sessions
Table 4.7 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects on TG, TC, HDL-C, LDL- 102
C, HB & FBS Levels Across the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.8 Pair Wise Comparisons on HDL Cholesterol level Across 103
the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.9 Descriptive Statistics of Blood Pressure (systolic & 104
diastolic), Heart Rate & VO2max Across the Different
Experimental Treatments and Three Test Sessions
Table 4.10 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects on Blood Pressure 105
(systolic & diastolic), Heart Rate & VO2max Levels
viii
Across the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.11 Descriptive Statistics of Dass-21 (Depression, Anxiety, 108
Stress) scores Across the Different Experimental
Treatments and Three Test Sessions
Table 4.12 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects on Dass-21( Depression, 109
Anxiety & Stress) Score Across the Measurement
Sessions
Table 4.13 Pair Wise Comparisons Score of Emotional Distress 110
Across the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.14 Descriptive Statistics of Short Term Memory Scores 111
Across the Different Experimental Treatments and
Three Test Sessions
Table 4.15 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects on Short Term Memory 112
Score Across the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.16 Pair Wise Comparisons for Short Term Memory Across 113
the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.17 Descriptive Statistics of DVT (total time) and DVT (total 114
error), for Both Numbers (6&9), Across the Different
Experimental Treatments and Three Test Sessions
Table 4.18 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects for Total Time of DVT & 115
Total Error of DVT for Both Numbers (6&9) Across the
Measurement Sessions
Table 4.19 Pair Wise Comparisons for Total Time of DVT (number 116
6) Across the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.20 Pair Wise Comparisons for Total Time of DVT (number 117
9) Across the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.21 Descriptive Statistics of CMJ (jump height), CMJ (Power 119
average) and SJ (Jump height) scores Across the
Different Experimental Treatments and Three Test
Sessions
Table 4.22 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects on CMJ (jump height), 120
CMJ (Power average) and SJ (Jump height) Across the
Measurement Sessions
ix
Table 4.23 Descriptive Statistics of Fat % and Waist Circumference 123
Across the Different Experimental Treatments and
Three Test Sessions
Table 4.24 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects on Fat% & Waist 123
Circumference Across the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.25 Pair Wise Comparisons for Fat% Across the 124
Measurement Sessions
Table 4.26 Pair Wise Comparisons for Waist Circumference Across 125
the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.27 Descriptive Statistics of TG, TC, HDL-C, LDL-C & FBS 126
Level Across the Different Experimental Treatments and
Two Test Sessions
Table 4.28 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects on TG, TC, HDL-C, LDL- 127
C,HB & FBS Levels Across the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.29 Pair Wise Comparisons on LDL Cholesterol level Across 130
the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.30 Descriptive Statistics of Blood Pressure (systolic & 131
diastolic), Heart Rate & VO2max Across the Different
Experimental Treatments and Three Test Sessions
Table 4.31 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects on Blood Pressure 132
(systolic & diastolic), Heart Rate & VO2max Levels
Across the Measurement Sessions
Table 4.32 Descriptive Statistics of Dass-21 (Depression, Anxiety, 134
Stress) scores Across the Different Experimental
Treatments and Three Test Sessions
Table 4.33 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects on Dass-21 135
(Depression, Anxiety & Stress) Scores Across the
Measurement Sessions
Table 4.34 Pair Wise Comparisons Depression Score Across the 136
Measurement Sessions
Table 4.35 Descriptive Statistics of Short Term Memory Across the 137
Different Experimental Treatments and Three Test

Sessions
x