Coastal Landscape Dynamics in NE SØrkapp Land (SE Spitsbergen), 1900-2005

8 Pages·1.149 MB·English

by  Ziaja Wieslaw.

Report Wieslaw Ziaja, Wojciech Maciejowski and Krzysztof Ostafin
Coastal Landscape Dynamics in NE S rkapp
Ø
Land (SE Spitsbergen), 1900–2005
varies fromwhat isshown onrecently publishedtopographical
This report presents the current dynamics of the natural
and geological maps at a scale of 1:100 000. The landscape
environment and landscape in a part of the mountainous
changesthat have occurred there sincethe endofthe Little Ice
southeastern Spitsbergen coast on the Barents Sea in
Age (in the 20th and 21st centuries) are among the most
1900–2005. Its current state substantially varies from
dramatic on Spitsbergen and especially fast after 1990.
what is shown on recently published topographic maps
The opportunity to conduct a field survey of this coast
actual for 1936. The physico-geographical mapping and
emergedwithaprojectmentionedbelowinsummer2005.Other
GPS survey were the basic field methods of recognizing
partsofSørkappLand(thesouthernpeninsulaofSpitsbergen),
the area, supplemented by remote sensing. Each land-
apartfromitsglaciatedmountainousinterior,wereexploredby
scape component, except for the Pre-Quaternary bed-
the Jagiellonian University scientific expeditions between 1980
rock, has been changed primarily as a direct or indirect
and 2000 (1). Many more detailed landscape-ecological studies
result of the current warming. The most dramatic
were carried out by Brossard (2) in Kongsfjorden, in the
landscape transformation has been connected with the
northwestern corner of Spitsbergen. Another comprehensive,
formation of a fjord, the abandoning of the lower parts of
butsomewhatlessdetailed,landscape-ecologicalmonographon
valleys by tidewater glaciers, and the alteration of the
Egdeøya was prepared by Zonneveld et al. (3). Both the
coastline.Thistransformation’spacehasbeenincreasing
Kongsfjorden and the Egdeøya areas have a very different
visiblyoverthelastfewdecades.Thelandscapebecame
environment and landscape from northeastern Sørkapp Land.
more diversified. There is a positive feedback in the
Thus the authors decided not to carry comparative studies of
processoflifeexpansioninthestudyarea:theprocesses
these three regions.
of animal colonization and plant succession stimulate
The study area is the shore of the Barents Sea from
each other.
DaudbjørnpyntentoSykorabreen,consistingoftheprecipitous
eastern slopes of the coastal mountain range Daudbjørnfjellet-
Mirefjellet-Hedgehogfjellet-Tvillingtoppen-Geologtoppen-
Kamptoppane (up to 608 m above sea level), and the narrow
INTRODUCTION
plains,upto300mwide,atitsfoot(exceptforthesouthernpart
The aim ofthis paper is topresent the currentdynamics ofthe of the range, where the mountain slopes dip directly into the
natural environment and landscape on the northeastern sea).Thenet-glaciatedinteriorislocatedjusttothewestofthe
Sørkapp Land coast (Fig. 1). Its current state substantially study area (Fig. 1).
Figure1.Locationandtopographyofthestudyarea.1:theglacialcoastlinesin1900(13,17),1936(14,15),1990(23)and2005(16);2:the
extentofglaciersonlandin2005;3:thenonglacialcoastlinein2005.Whitecolor:the1936extentofglaciersonlandthatexistedin2005.
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The main focus of the field research was a through satellite’s passage. Such a synchronism is very rare. An
geographical exploration of the area because the eastern exception is an analysis of glaciated coastlines, which tend to
Spitsbergen (Barents Sea) shore has been insufficiently ex- be projected visibly even with snow-covered land and ice-
plored, having been largely blocked by pack ice, even in coveredsea.TheonlyonegoodsatelliteimagetakenofSørkapp
summer, until the 1980s. Evidence of that is known from Land before 1992 (on 20 August 1985) was used for studies of
recordsofexpeditions. Inaddition, summer iceblockages have the recession of the glaciers’ sea cliffs (17) and for complex
occurredalbeitrarelyduringthelast25years(beingaperiodof environmental studies (18–20). Today satellite images (Terra
warmclimatefluctuationinthe100þyearssincetheendofthe ASTER, http//asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/) facilitate studiesofyear-
Little Ice Age). However, this shore has usually been free of ly changes in the extent of the tidewater glaciers. Thanks to
pack ice during the summer season (up to several weeks) since them, there is no doubt that warming since the 1980s, which—
the 1980s. according to Przybylak (21)—was similar to that of the 1930s,
Aperiodofextremecoldinthe1890s(4)constitutedthelast acceleratedthedeglaciationpaceandchangesinthetopography
episodeoftheLittleIceAgethatbeganbeforeSpitsbergenwas of the area.
discovered. The 20th century became the period of a globally The study of the current state of the landscape in 2005
conditioned warming, with its secondary cold and warm constituted a rare research opportunity in the 21st century
fluctuations. The first such fluctuation was a considerable because it required pure and basic geographical exploration. It
warming, which reached its height in the 1930s (4–7). The last was motivated by the fact that the most recent topographical
such fluctuation has also been a significant warming from the map at a scale of 1:100 000 was valid for 1936, and since then
1980suntilthepresent(8).Thiswarminginitiatedenvironmen- fundamental changes in topography and landscape have
tal and landscape changes that continue today. occurred. Theauthors drewthetopographicalmap overagain,
except for the mountain summits.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Themainfocusofthefieldresearch(i.e.,theaforementioned
exploration) was the following:
When Barents discovered Spitsbergen in 1596, he did not
exploreitseasterncoast(9).Inthe17thcentury,explorationof i) Complex physico-geographical mapping of the area at a
thiscoastbeganfromthesouth,fromSørkappLand,whichwas scaleof1:25000,inordertoidentifyitsspatialdiversityand
shownonthemapsofthatera.ButonlyScoresby’smap(9)and to determine changes in its landscape since 1936.
that by Chydenius et al. (10), both edited in the 19th century, ii) Mapping the sea coastline anew (along the entire line) and
gave a good approximation of the coastline. Even more drawing current longitudinal hypsometric profiles of the
accurate is the map drawn by De Geer (11) in 1900 at a scale surface of the recessed glaciers, using a GPS 12 Garmin
of 1:1000000 from the Russian-Swedish expedition (organized (accuracy 10–15 m) and Paulin altimeter (accuracy 2–3 m).
to measure a meridian arc near this eastern coast). On a later iii) Determination of plant and animal species and of their
map by Isachsen (9) the eastern coast of Spitsbergen is not occurrence, based on direct observations in the field (plant
depicted more precisely. samples were collected as a herbarium).
The works of Vasiliev (his Russian surname has several
Physico-geographicalfieldmappingwasthebasicmethodof
different Latin versions) in the framework of the Russian-
investigation of the environment and landscape, like earlier
Swedish expedition was an important event for studies of
studies in the other areas of Sørkapp Land (1). The mentioned
southeastern Spitsbergen landscape dynamics (12). He mapped
topographicalmap,enlargedupto1:25000scale,wasusedasa
the glaciers’ extent at ca. 1:200 000 scale in the Barents Sea in
map base (14, 15). In sum, 127 basic landscape units (geo-
1900 (13). complexes) covering 12.72 km2 were mapped (Fig. 2, Table 1).
High-qualityobliqueairphotographsfrom1936becamethe
The main criteria for their delimitation were (differences in)
basis for the aforementioned topographical map at a scale of
altitude, slope gradient and exposure, Quaternary deposits
1:100000(14,15),publishedbytheNorskPolarinstituttt.Ithas
(origin, texture, thickness), origin of relief (landforms), micro-
been the best and most actual map of the southeastern
relief, geomorphic processes, ground moisture, and bodies of
Spitsbergencoastuntiltoday.Itshowsthestateofthelandscape
water. The basic features of lithostratigraphy, tectonics, and
in 1936, with only the frontal extension of tidewater glaciers
vegetation are similar and thus do not differentiate this area.
essentially corrected in subsequent issues. This map allows the
Information on all the landscape features, collected on special
comparison(withVasiliev’smap)ofchangesintheextensionof
sheetsmadeforeachindividualgeocomplexseparately,created
seaglaciercliffsfrom1900to1936.Itisalsoagoodbasisfora
a main database, necessary for use of the next methods
studyofthemajorlandscapechangesthatoccurredlater.
described.
A further recession of Spitsbergen glaciers has been docu-
Anothermethodwastheinterpretationofthementionedair
mentedbyblackandwhiteverticalaerialphotographsfromthe
photos and satellite images. GIS computer programs (ArcGIS
early1960sand1970sandbycolorinfraredphotosfrom1990,at
9.0,GlobalMapper7)wereusedformakingmaps(e.g.,Fig.1)
ascaleofca.1:50000,commissionedbytheNorskPolarinstitutt.
and three-dimensional terrain models (e.g., Fig. 2).
However,allthesephotosdonotshowthestudyareaprecisely
One component of the landscape—and so far the best-
becausethesteepslopesofthecoastalmountainswiththeirbase
explored one—has not changed because of the warming: the
arehiddeninshadow.Also,vegetationinthenortheastpartof
Pre-Quaternary bedrock, which consists of Cretaceous and
SørkappLandistoosparsetoberegisteredoninfraredpictures
Palaeogene sandstones, mudstones, siltstones, and shales (22,
(perhapsexceptforapatchatDaudbjørnpynten).
23), of relatively low resistance to weathering.
RemotesensingofSpitsbergenbysatellites(NASA)beganin
the early 1970s, at first by Landsat MSS, then by more
RESULTS: DYNAMICS OF LANDSCAPE
advanced satellites such as Terra ASTER since 1999 (16).
COMPONENTS, 1900–2005
Satelliteimagesweresuitableforlandscapestudiesatamedium
scale(1:200000–1:100000).However,theirapplicationhasbeen
Glacial Recession
limited because imaging demands the simultaneous occurrence
of a cloudless sky, the sea free of ice, and the lack of haze and Everyinstanceofclimatewarmingorcoolingaffectsinstantly—
snow on land (at least beyond the glaciers) at the time of the within a given year—the snow line and the equilibrium line of
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Figure2.NortheasternSørkappLandcoast(oftheBarentsSea)fromDaudbjørnpynteninthesouth(totheleft)toHambergbuktainthenorth
(totheright),in1936and2005.Viewfromtheeasttothewest.Typesofgeocomplexes(smalllandscapeunits)arenumbered:1:beach
shores,2:rockcliffshores,3:rockyshorewithboulders,4:accumulationmarineterraces,5:coastallakes,6:alluvialcones,7:lateraland
terminalglacialmoraines,8:rockyslopescoveredbymorainicmaterialupto2mthick,9:medium-inclinedweathering-and-talusslopes,10:
gentle structural-and-weathering slopes, 11: talus slope on dead ice, 12: steep rocky slopes, 13: gullies, 14: structural flattening, 15:
perennialsnowpatches,16:well-preservedglacial-icemasscoveredbyslopematerial,17:valleyglaciers.
the mass balance of glaciers in such a way that they rise or afteracertainlengthoftime:fromseveralyears(smallglaciers)
lower, which results, respectively, in a decrease or increase of to several dozen years (great glaciers flowing irregularly, in so-
the snow accumulation. This, in turn, influences the volume calledsurges).Anincreasingtrendinprecipitationataperiodof
increase or decrease of the glaciers, leading to an increase or warming,asstatedbyPrzybylak(21),hassofarnotalteredthe
decreaseoftheirthicknessandareaoveryears.Duringalonger influenceoftheairtemperatureontheglaciationintheareaof
warming period, the recession of glaciers (18, 19) takes place research.
Table1.DynamicsofthecoastallandscapestructureinnortheasternSørkappLandbetween1900and2005:aprogressiveorregressive(or
lackofa)trendindifferenttypesofgeocomplexes.
Recessionfrom1900to2005 Expansionfrom1900to2005
No.andnameofthetypeofgeocomplexes;
quantityandareaoftheunitsin2005inparentheses Inarea Innumber Totaldecline Inarea Innumber Origin Notrend
1.Beachshores(19,29.85ha) X X
2.Rockcliffshores(2,0.90ha) X X X
3.Rockyshorewithboulders(1,3.58ha) X
4.Accumulationmarineterraces(11,48.26ha) X X
5.Coastallakes(9,9.47ha) X X
6.Alluvialcones(11,23.45ha) X X
7.Lateralandterminalglacialmoraines(17,102.89ha) X X
8.Rockyslopescoveredbytillupto2mthick(13,158.36ha) X X
9.Medium-inclinedweathering-and-talusslopes(10,200.83ha) X
10.Gentlestructural-and-weatheringslopes(3,33.02ha) X
11.Talusslopeondeadice(1,6.70ha) X
12.Steeprockyslopes(17,487.60ha) X
13.Gullies(3,0.79ha) X
14.Structuralflattening(1,0.06ha) X
15.Perennialsnowpatches(3,5.76ha) X X
16.Well-preservedglacialicemasscoveredbyslopematerial X X X
(2,14.59ha)
17.Valleyglaciers(4,144.84ha) X
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What is also clearly visible is a lessening of the smaller
tongues that have never reached the sea: Barbarabreen and
Kanebreen,ontheeasternslopesofthecoastalrange,aswellas
a decline of perennial snow or firn patches in the entire study
area(Fig.2).Thesurfacerecessionoftheglaciersintheinterior
of Sørkapp Land, also on the western slopes of the coastal
range, is still very small.
Land Formation and Sediment Cover
At the end of the Little Ice Age, the convex tongues of
Coryellbreen, Bevanbreen, and Kambreen were filling three
valleys (1.5–2 km long and 500–700 m wide) on the coast.
Today their ice-free rocky slopes are steep and high, up to 400
m,locallywithathincoverofmoraineandweatheredmaterial.
Attheirfoot,lateralice-coredmoraineshaveformed,whichare
inastateofmeltingnow.Thelowerpartsofthesevalleyshave
Figure3.Coastalvalleythatwasfilledbythetidewaterglacieratthe
beginningofthe20thcentury.Viewfromthecoastlinetotheinland: become ice free, with sandur fans, ground moraine covers
a fragment of the new marine terrace with a large tree trunk of (includingtheflutedtype),andmorainehills(possiblyterminal,
driftwood(intheforeground),thecoastallake,theglacialmoraines
withaniceorrockcore),aswellaslandformsanddepositsof
and slopes abandoned by the glacier, and the lessened and split
Coryellbreenglacierinthebackground.(Photo:W.Maciejowski) nonglacial origin (Figs. 1–4).
After the lobe of Hambergbreen vanished, its right lateral
moraine—thebiggestonthecoast—remained.Itispreservedin
A great recession of glaciers took place on the northeastern
fragments and highly degraded between the above-mentioned
coastofSørkappLandaftertheirequilibriumlinehadrisenby
valleys, that is, within the extent of Hambergbreen’s 19th-
100–200msincethebeginningofthe20thcentury.In1900the century surge. However, to the north of Kambreen, where the
Coryellbreen,Bevanbreen,andKambreenglacierswereforming Hambergbreen’s front receded in the 1920s and 1930s, it still
tongues of ice flowing out of the interior of the peninsula (13) forms a classic ice-cored moraine ridge, ca. 100m wide and up
and feeding the great lobe of Hambergbreen. On the topo- to 50 m high (20), covering the foot of the 500-m-high
graphicmapandobliqueaerialphotographs,itisevidentthatin Kamtoppane slopes. This moraine is now being degraded by
1936theseglacierswerereachingthesea.Atthattimetheyfilled the sea, and in the summer by mud flows due to ice-core
their valleys, being poorly shaded (Fig. 2: 1936), which made melting. In the inner part of Hambergbukta, glaciated until
them vulnerable to warming. Afterwards, between 1936 and 1990,thelateralmoraineformsirregularpilesonandunderthe
2005, the glaciers became much shorter, narrower, and thinner slopes; some of them contain melting dead ice.
(Fig. 2). The oldest (from ca. 1900) part of Hambergbreen’s right
In 1990 Coryellbreen and Bevanbreen were partially fed edge,situatedatthefarthestextentoftheglacier(Figs.1,2),has
from the interior (plateau). Later Coryellbreen stopped being been partially worn away by sea abrasion to the north of the
fed from the interior (the ice cover’s thickness on the plateau former Davislaguna lake. In spite of that, under the slopes of
decreased).Bevanbreenisstillbeingfedfromtheplateautoday, Tvillingtoppen this glacial ice mass has been preserved in a
but to a lesser degree. Kambreen, remaining in a deep cirque much better state than the younger ice-cored of the lateral
with steep walls, might have been fed from the plateau earlier, moraine. Most of its volume consists of clean dead ice, which
but today it is fully isolated. The fronts of these three glaciers appearsonlyinstormundercutsatthebeach.Itisinclinedupto
retreated by ca. 600–800 m from 1936 to 2005 (20). 358 over the beach. Its upper surface is undulating, inclined
ItisknownfromVasiliev’sstudy(13)thatin1900,afterthe
glacier’ssurge,mostofwhatispresentlythedescribedcoastwas
covered by the right edge of the Hambergbreen glacier. This
glacier reached out with an 8-km lobe to the sea, to the
southeast,fromthemouthoftoday’sHambergbuktafjord.This
lobe served as a massive breakwater for the unglaciated
coastline to the south, also during its retreat by the 1930s,
whichresultedintheappearanceofaslightlycurvedbaycalled
Hambergbukta (Fig. 2: 1936). The glacier’s recession lasted
until 1960. Hambergbreen’s next surge, weaker than the first
one,beganin1961andlasteduntil1970.Itreducedtheglacier’s
thickness and advanced the front approximately to its 1936
position (15, 17, 23). Afterwards, a frontal recession began
again, progressing until the present. The pace of retreat of the
Hambergbreen ice cliff was especially rapid in 1990–1995, on
averageca.400mperyear.Thisretreatcausedtheeasternpart
of the front of its tributary glacier, Sykorabreen, to begin
flowing into the sea (Fig. 2: 2005). In 1995–2005 the frontal Figure 4. Former outlet of the Coryellbreen glacier’s valley
recessionofHambergbreenandSykorabreenreachedca.1.2km transformed by the land and sea geomorphic processes due to
recessionofthetidewaterglacierafter1936.ViewfromtheSEtothe
in total, that is, on average ca. 120 m per year. This is why a NW:thecoastallakeseparatedfromtheseabythenarrowmarine
slightlycurvedbay(Hambergbuktain1936)hadchangedintoa terraceandbeingfilledwithalluvialconesfromthelandside,thehill
built of a part of the Hambergbreen glacier’s right lateral moraine,
short fjord by the end of the century. An intensive calving or
thenewHambergbuktafjord,andtheKovalskifjellamountainridge
melting of both glaciers’ fronts continues today (20). inthebackground.(Photo:W.Maciejowski)
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Figure 5. Well-preserved glacial-ice mass covered tightly by slope Figure 6. Coast formed after 1936, having retreated by 200–460 m,
materialatthefarthestHambergbreenglacier’sextentfromca.1900, withtwosmalllagoons(comprising2ha,30–35mwide),whichare
justundertheslopesoftheTvillingtoppenmassif.ViewfromtheNW theremainsoftheformerDavislagunalake(29ha).Thebeachand
totheSE.(Photo:W.Ziaja) thelownarrowmarineterraceseparatethemfromthesea.Viewfrom
thenorthtothesouth.(Photo:W.Ziaja)
from 0 to 208 and covered by material, ca. 1 m thick, from the glaciers’bottomhadbeenrestingonthegroundbelowsealevel.
slopes above, with indistinct traces of ice movement. There are Theshoreline hasundergonechangesalongits entirelength, in
snow patches, small streams, and sparse clumps of vegetation both its contour and type (Figs. 1, 2, 4).
on this surface (Fig. 5). The texture of moraine and slope The biggest landscape change resulted from the retreat of
sediments varies widely from clay to blocks. Hambergbreen (Figs. 1, 2). Particularly rapid was the disap-
The slopes and moraines have been undergoing intensive pearance of the glacier’s tongue after it had surged for the last
water, surface, and linear erosion, whereas the valley bottoms timeduringthe1960s(17).Itsfrontretreatedbyca.7kmfrom
areshapedbyproglacialandpronivalstreams.Thestreambeds, 1970to2005.Asaresult,abaythatdidnotexistacenturyago,
both braided and single thread, are shallow (to several dozen Hambergbukta,hastransformedintoafjord,ca.8kmlongand
centimeters)andnarrow(toseveralmeters)andstillforming.In ca. 3 km wide. Between 1990 (23) and 1995, Hambergbreen
low-gradient sections they deposit small alluvial cones, includ- receded so significantly that Sykorabreen, feeding it from the
ingafewsandurfansmainlyinpebblefraction,attheoutflows south,hasformedaseaicecliff(2),afewdozenmetershigh.At
from glaciers in the middle parts of the valleys. Most of the thattimethesouthernshoreofthenewfjordwasfreedofglacial
alluvialconesareinthelowestpartsofthevalleys.Theyareflat, ice.
consisting of silt and gravel (20). TheshoretothesouthofHambergbuktahasalsoundergone
Basins of nine newly formed coastal lakes are being filled a visible change from 1936 to 2005. On the forefield of
withlandmaterialbystreamsandsheetwash,andbythestorm Kambreentheshorelineretreatedby70–90mbecauseofthesea
accumulation of sea material, including driftwood (later abrasion that destroyed Hambergbreen’s lateral moraine.
deposited on the lake shores). The narrow bars (up to several Farthertothesouth,thelandontheforefieldsofCoryellbreen
dozen meters), separating the lakes from the sea, are often (Figs. 3, 4) and Bevanbreen expanded 20–40 m (Fig. 2).
shiftedbystorms(Fig.4).Streamscutthroughthebars,flowing To the southof Coryellbreen, the shoreline has retreatedby
out of the lakes. 100–460 m in the years 1936–2005, most dramatically on the
Sea action (accumulation and abrasion) have greatly section of the former Davislaguna lake. This lake has
intensified after the Little Ice Age. Breakwaters in the form of disappeared because of successive shifting of the bar to the
the glaciers’ tongues flowing into the sea have thawed. Hence, mountain slopes (Figs. 2, 6). A hunting station at the southern
theshoreshavebecomeunprotectedfromthecoldcoastalEast end of the lake has been swallowed by the sea too. The same
SpitsbergenCurrent,flowingfromthenorth.Theseasonofice- thing happened to a seaside fragment of the glacial-ice mass
free coastal sea has lengthened up to 2–3 months per year. fromthemaximumextentofHambergbreen,tothenorthofthe
There are narrow accumulative sea terraces, which are still lake. Minimal changes (up to 10 m, too subtle to be measured
forming,alongthecoast.Someofthemarethebarsbetweenthe by the mentioned methods) have taken place at the foot of
coastal lakes and the sea. The terraces contain driftwood, Hedgehogfjellet and Mirefjellet (20) (Fig. 2).
including large tree trunks (Figs. 3, 4).
In the south of the study area, the sea abrasion has been Changes of the Water Network
causing shores to recede, thus disappearance of the plain
around the former Davislaguna lake (Fig. 2). Duringthepast100yearssomepartsofthewaternetworkhave
Beaches are the predominant seashore type. In the south- essentially disappeared because of sea abrasion together with
ernmostpartoftheresearchareajustbehindthebeaches,there thelowlandthatsurroundedDavislaguna,alaketypicalofthis
are mountains slopes (a section of a few kilometers), being part of Spitsbergen’s coast. Nearly 1 km long and up to 400 m
undercut by the sea during storms (20). wide in 1936, it underwent a gradual narrowing for decades as
the bar was moving toward the land, finally shrinking into the
twosmalllakesweseetodayatthefootofthemountainslopes
Shoreline Changes
(Fig. 6).
Theretreatoftheglaciers’tonguesfromtheseaandthelonger New streams formed on ice-freed land areas, flowing out of
ice-free season have influenced the shoreline through intensifi- the glaciers that have retreated. Subglacial water outflow
cation of the action of the sea. Large shoreline changes have (drainage) occurs there, but icing fields are absent at the
occurred because of the flooding of those places where the glaciers’ fronts. The length of the streams reaches up to 1 km
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Table2.Observationsofbird andmammalspeciesin thestudy Hedgehogfjellet(usually70–130breedingpairsforeachcolony).
areaduringinvestigations. Thisnumberisverysmallinrelationtothebiggestcolonieson
the western Spitsbergen coast, which comprise up to several
Observations Species
dozen thousand breeding pairs (25). Birds of the other three
Frequent,ofnumerous LittleAuk(Allealle),BlackGuillemot breedingspeciesarerareinthestudyarea.Birdsofotherspecies
individualsof (Cepphusgrylle),Kittiwakes
(Table 2) arrive accidentally in the area or migrate along its
breedingspecies (Rissatridactyla)
Frequent,offew GlaucousGull(Larushyperboreus), coast.
individualsof ArcticSkua(Stercorariusparasiticus), Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) is the only land mammal rarely
breedingspecies Bru¨nnich’sGuillemot(Urialomvia)
occurring there. It preys on weak and sick birds or seeks
Frequent,ofsingle Fulmar(Fulmarusglacialis)
individuals carrion. It climbs high on steep slopes to access bird colonies.
Sporadic Arcticfox(Alopexlagopus),WhiteWhale Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) tracks and dung were found,
(Delphinapterusleucas)
indicating that a bear was patrolling the coast.
Single Pink-footedGoose(Anserbrachyrhynchus),
BrentGoose(Brantabernicla),
BarnacleGoose(Brantaleucopsis), Plant Succession
KingEider(Somateriaspectabilis),
PurpleSandpiper(Calidrismaritima), Climate warming and glacial recession, and the environmental
GreatSkua(Catharactaskua),
changes following them, were conducive to the processes of
SnowBunting(Plectrophenaxnivalis),
HarpSeal(Phocagroenlandica), plant succession. However, primary succession is very slow in
RingedSeal(Phocahispida), thecoastunderstudyduetoanunderdevelopmentofvegetation
BeardedSeal(Erignathusbarbatus)
ontheeasternSpitsbergencoast(contrarytothewesterncoast).
Tracesofpresence PolarBear(Ursusmaritimus)
Withinthestudyarea48speciesoflichensand15speciesof
vascularplantswerefound:8%of597lichenspeciesinSvalbard
(26)and18%of240–250lichenspeciesinSørkappland(26,27),
along their course. Their width reaches several m, and their and 9% of the Svalbard vascular flora comprising 164 species
depth 0.5 m. The streambeds are diversified: rocky and (28) and 18% of the Sørkappland vascular flora comprising 82
sedimentary, braided, and single thread. The course of certain species (27). The lichens Acarospora heppii and Pycnothelia
sectionsofthestreamsisclosetorectilinearormeandering,with papillaria are newly reported species for Svalbard (29). Within
uneven longitudinal profiles. thestudyarea,fivetosixtaxonsofmosseswerefound,buttheir
Ninesmallnewlakeshaveappeared(includingtworemnants specieswerenotdetermined.Thesetaxonscompriseonly2%of
ofDavislaguna),upto400mlong,upto100mwide,andupto 288 Svalbard moss species (30).
6 m deep. Five of them are situated in the forefield of former Distribution of plants is extremely irregular (Table 3). The
tidewater glaciers. largest part of the described coast is an Arctic desert without
There are also small periodic or episodic streams and lakes, plantsduetoseverehabitatconditions.Onlyinsomeplacesdo
which function during only part of the summer. Their number mainlylichensandvascularplantsformisolatedconcentrations
does not exceed the permanent ones. There are numerous of several dozen to several hundred specimens of the same
swamps (20). species,whicharelooselyscatteredontheground,occupyingup
toseveraldozensquaremeters.Epilithicspecies(thoselivingon
rocks or boulders) dominate among lichens, for instance,
Animal Colonization
Lecanora polytropa, Tremolecia atrata, Rhizocarpon interme-
As usual in Spitsbergen, animals concentrate on the coast. diellum, Umbilicaria hyperborea, and Umbilicaria virginis. The
However, there are many fewer species and individuals on the mostfrequent vascularplants areArcticMouse-ear (Cerastium
northeastern Sørkapp Land coast than on the western arcticum), Drooping Saxifrage (Saxifraga cernua), and North-
Spitsbergen coast. Researchers have counted 203 species of ern Wood-rush (Luzula confusa). Mosses (e.g., Sphagnum sp.
birdsand22mammals(terrestrialandmarine)livingacrossthe and probably Racomitrium sp.) usually grow in wet (perma-
whole Svalbard territory (24). Fourteen bird species (including nentlyorperiodically)areas,primarilynearstagnantorflowing
six breeding species) and six mammal species were observed in water and below melting snow patches.
thestudyareaduringourinvestigations(Table2).Itshouldbe The only, and a very small, Arctic oasis (500–600 m2) was
underlinedthatthesewerethefirsteverobservationsinthispart created by the combination of fertilization by birds, favorable
of the peninsula. terrainrelief(slopeflatteningcoveredwithweatheredmaterial),
In summer birds are the largest animal group. The largest warm, southern and southeastern exposure, and soil humidity
coloniesarecreatedbyLittleAuks(Allealle),BlackGuillemots (rockhollowswhereprecipitationaccumulates).Vascularplant
(Cepphus grylle), and Kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla), mainly on and lichen species that need a better habitat (e.g., Svalbard
the slopes of Tvillingtoppen, Mirefjellet, Daudbjørnfjellet, and Poppy [Papaver dahlianum], Mountain Sorrel [Oxyria dygina],
Table3.Occurrenceofvascularplantsandchosenlichenspeciesinthestudyarea.
Speciesfeatures Vascularplantspecies Lichenspecies
Commonpioneerspeciesgrowing ArcticMouse-ear(Cerastiumarcticum),Drooping Lecanorapolytropa,Porpidiatuberculosa,
inmanyplacesseparatelyorin Saxifrage(Saxifragacernua),NorthernWood-rush Rhizocarponintermediellum,Tremoleciaatrata,
looseconcentrations (Luzulaconfusa) Umbilicariahyperborea,Umbilicariavirginis
Species occurring in concentrations SvalbardPoppy(Papaverdahlianum),MountainSorrel Acarosporamolybdina,Aspiciliacaesiocinerea,
onlyinplacesfertilizedbybirds (Oxyriadygina),TuftedSaxifrage(Saxifraga Candelariellavitellina,Lecideaatrobrunnea,
caespitosa),HighlandSaxifrage(Saxifragarivularis), Physciacaesia,Xanthoriaelegans
AlpineMeadow-grass(Poaalpinavar.vivipara)
Rarespeciesoccurringindividually PolarScurvygrass(Cochleariagroenlandica), Acarosporaheppii,Pycnotheliapapillaria,
SnowPearlwort(Saginanivalis),Polar Stereocauloncapitellatum,Stereocaulon
Saxifrage(Saxifragahyperborea) condensatum
206 (cid:2)RoyalSwedishAcademyofSciences2009 AmbioVol.38,No.4,June2009
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compounds washed out of excrement, ii) land edges of fresh
water bodies frequented by birds for drinking or rest, iii)
solitary great boulders or moraine hills used by birds as
observation points (Fig. 7), and iv) sites below bird colonies.
RESULTS: CHANGES IN THE LANDSCAPE
STRUCTURE, 1900–2005
Climate warming and the resulting recession of glaciers have
contributed to substantial changes of the coastal landscape
structureaftertheendoftheLittleIceAge.Themaintrendsin
thechangesarepresentedinTable1.Thedirectconsequenceof
the warming was the great recession of perennial snow patches
and glaciers, which had earlier dominated the landscape.
Transformations of the areas freed from perennial ice or
snow are categorized as follows:
i) Sea transgression on the areas abandoned by the lowest
parts of tidewater glaciers.
ii) Expansion of the types of geocomplexes, which already
existed in the Little Ice Age: beach shores, accumulation
marine terraces, alluvial cones, lateral and terminal glacial
moraines, rocky slopes covered by till up to 2 m thick,
medium-inclined weathering-and-talus slopes, and steep
rockyslopes(Table1).Newbeachshoreshavebeencreated
inthemiddleandnorthofthestudyareaafterthecoastwas
exposedbecauseoftheretreatoftheHambergbreenglacier.
Because of glacial recession, new lateral and terminal
moraines(ridgesorhills)havebeenformed,andlargeareas
of rocky slopes have been covered with a thin layer of till.
However,inmanyplacestheretreatingglaciershavenotleft
any till behind, which has increased the area of medium-
inclined weathering-and-scree slopes and the area of steep
rocky slopes.
iii) Because of the processes described above, the once large
Davislaguna lake (29 ha), still thought to be an east
Spitsbergen landmark, has disappeared. Meanwhile nine
Figure 7. Dense vegetation patch (ca. 1 square m) developed new coastal lakes have appeared. Their combined area is
because of bird (Arctic Skua Stercorarius parasiticus) fertilization
three times smaller than the former area of Davislaguna.
ofthesmallhillinthemarineplainformedatthesouthernshoreof
thenewHambergbuktafjordafter1990.ViewfromtheSEtotheNW. iv) Theoriginofgeocomplexesofanewtype:rockcliffshores
The Hambergbreen glacier’s front is visible in the background. in the interior of the Hambergbukta fjord after the glacial
(Photo:W.Maciejowski)
retreat since 1990 and well-preserved glacial ice mass from
the farthest extent of the Hambergbreen glacier in 1900
(Table1).Theicehasbeenwellpreservedbecauseofatight
Tufted Saxifrage [Saxifraga caespitosa], or the lichens [Acaro-
mantle of slope material just under the slopes of the
spora molybdina, Cetraria islandica, Xanthoria elegans] grow
Tvillingtoppen massif. At the same time, this ice mass has
usually in places with partly similar environmental conditions.
also been intensively undercut from the sea side.
Almostallthevegetationpatchesarefertilizedbybirds(Fig.7).
v) Therearealsotypesofgeocomplexes(Table1:rockyshore
Plant succession in the northeastern Sørkapp Land began
with boulders, gentle structural-and-weathering slopes,
after the end of the Little Ice Age, ca. 1900, or much later, in
talusslopeondeadice,gullies,structuralflattening)beyond
some places only a few years ago. Thus the number of species
themaximumextentofglaciersintheLittleIceAge,which
and plant communities, and the degree to which the ground is
havenotundergoneanysubstantial(visible)changestothe
coveredbytheminthestudyarea,ismuchsmallerthaninareas
present day.
that were free of ice duringthe Holocene. Forcomparison, the
number of plant species in the study area is two to three times
lower than in the western Sørkapp Land (27) or on the
CONCLUSION: TRENDS OF LANDSCAPE CHANGE
Kongsfjordencoast(2).Successionratesareslowbecauseofthe
extremeisolationofthestudyarea(bytheseaandglaciers)and Thecurrentclimatewarminghasresultedinthegreatlandscape
a poor habitat. This poor habitat contains, among other changes on the coast of northeastern Sørkapp Land. Each
features, i) disadvantageous terrain relief—the narrow coastal landscape component, except for the Pre-Quaternary bedrock,
plainsinastateofformingandsteepslopes,ii)ashortgrowing has been changed primarily as a direct or indirect result of the
season and predominance of slopes with northern and eastern warming. The direct result and the first, initial phase of the
aspect,exposedtocoldwindsandseawaters,iii)fastdrainage, entire process has been glacial recession. The indirect results
iv) poorly developed soils, v) poor fertilization resulting from have been connected with a range of after-effects of the retreat
sparse fauna, vi) a short period of vegetation development in of glaciers.
the most of the area (less than 100 years). The changes that have taken place over the past century
Theplaceswithafastersuccession,betterfertilizedbybirds, show the extreme vulnerability of the described coastal
include i) alluvial cones with trace amounts of biotic landscape to climate change. The most dramatic landscape
AmbioVol.38,No.4,June2009 (cid:2)RoyalSwedishAcademyofSciences2009 207
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