CO2 Capture - Technologies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions

182 Pages·2010·12.724 MB·English

by  Lecomte, Fabrice, Broutin, Paul, Lebas, Etienne

IFP PUBLICATIONS
b Fabrice LECOMTE
Paul BROUTIN
Etienne LEBAS
I FP
CO CAPTURE
2
Technologies to Reduce
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Preface by
Olivier APPERT
IFP Chairman and CEO
Translated from the French
by Trevor Jones (Lionbridge)
2010
t
Editions TECHNIP
2s rue Cinoux, 7501s PARIS,F RANCE
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This book is a translation of “Le captage du CO,”
0E ditions Technip, 2009
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the
prior written permission of the publisher.
0 Editions Technip, Paris, 2010.
Printed in France
ISBN 978-2-7 108-0948-7
Reducing C02 emissions is an absolute necessity in the fight against global warming. COz
capture for geological storage is now recognised as being one of the pathways to be imple-
mented to achieve this.
Where, how and at what price can C02 be captured? This book attempts to provide the
answers to these questions, reviewing the state of the art of the technologies required for the
“C02 capture” step.
In particular, it presents the three main pathways considered in which the C02 cap-
ture technologies are expected to be implemented, respectively: post-combustion, oxy-
combustion and pre-combustion.
The reference combustion step in this case is that of hydrocarbons (oil, natural gas), coal
or biomass (especially wood) with atmospheric oxygen. It releases heat and produces mainly
carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (C02) and steam.
In the post-combustion C02 capture pathway, the aim is to extract the C02 contained in
industrial flue gases. Its main advantage lies in the immediate availability of technical solu-
tions that can be implemented on existing installations, the only condition being that there
should be sufficient space. Its main drawback is that, since air contains on average 21% oxy-
gen and 79% nitrogen, smoke from combustion in air consists mainly of nitrogen; the C02 is
therefore diluted and the volumes of gas to be processed to capture the C02 alone are pro-
portionally very high, inducing correspondingly large equipment.
The oxy-combustion C02 capture pathway aims to overcome this disadvantage by per-
forming the combustion in oxygen in order to obtain smoke with high C02 concentration.
This pathway, based on the availability of a flow of pure oxygen, opens the door to more
efficient and, in particular, less energy-intensive processes than those used in the post-
combustion capture pathway.
Lastly, the pre-combustion C02 capture pathway involves preprocessing of the initial fuel
(oil, natural gas, coal or biomass), firstly to extract and capture the carbon and, secondly, to pro-
duce hydrogen whose combustion will only produce water vapour. This pathway is explored in
particular for electricity generation (IGCC - Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle).
The book introduces, for each pathway, the technologies currently available and those
under development. A last chapter is dedicated to the technico-economical aspects of the
entire C02c apture-transport-storage chain.
Preface
Every day, our planet welcomes nearly 200,000 additional inhabitants, mostly in the emer-
ging countries. The global energy demand is growing steadily to meet the requirements of an
expanding population with an improving standard of living. While the carbon cycle is essen-
tial for life on Earth, the C02 emissions related to human activity 80% of the energy
-
demand is currently met by fossil energies have reached such proportions that the natural
-
cycles have now been modified. The role played by greenhouse gas emissions, C02 being
the main component, in climate disturbance is now undeniable; the urgent need to reduce
their impact has become an absolute priority.
The challenge is all the more difficult since to date, there is no immediate and massive
substitution solution for fossil fuels (oil, gas and coal), especially in the fields of transport
and chemistry, and these products will continue to play a central role in our energy supplies
for many years to come. Coal, for example, is used to supply 40% of the electricity produced
throughout the world and we cannot expect to see a reversal of this trend in the near future:
China, for instance, builds no less than one coal-fired 600 MW power station every three
days. With a lifetime of 50 years, these power stations will still be operational in the second
half of this century.
Nevertheless, this situation must not inhibit the considerable R&D efforts required
immediately to find alternative energy sources (4th generation nuclear power and renewable
energy) and design the associated technologies to exploit them. Presently, however, these
alternative energies represent only a very small fraction of the world's total primary energy
supply, less than 20%, and their share is growing very slowly. They pose problems in terms
of technological maturity and economic profitability (in case of massive development of the
renewable energies), possibly even competition regarding their use (e.g. first generation bio-
fuels vs. food) and also in terms of safety and social acceptability (nuclear energy).
It will take a long period of transition to reverse the respective shares of fossil and non-
fossil energies. Most analyses conducted predict that by 2050, the share of non-fossil ener-
gies will not exceed 30% to 40%, even given favourable scenarios, with assumptions aimed
at favouring the penetration of non-fossil energies. The global transition, resulting in signifi-
cant replacement of fossil energies by non-fossil energies, will therefore last a considerable
period of time. Even through it has already started, it will probably not be completed before
2100.
VI Preface
Under these conditions, until new technical breakthroughs which will allow broader dis-
tribution of these alternative solutions become available, we must implement all possible
means to make the transition without suffering a major crisis, initiating without hrther delay
an action program based on the following four levers:
- Reducing energy consumption while continuing economic development, especially
in the poorest countries, and protecting the environment, is the top priority. This is
undeniably the best way of reducing energy dependency on hydrocarbons, while at
the same time limiting C02 emissions. It also represents a way of promoting more
harmonious relations between economy and society.
Reducing the energy carbon content, to decrease C02 emissions per unit of energy
-
produced. This privileges energy sources with reduced carbon content (nuclear and
renewable) and offers the opportunity of examining how to globally reduce the C02
emissions of the energy system.
- Controlling fossil energy supplies. To cope with the increase in global energy
demand, we must also develop new ways aimed at pushing back the production limits
through new discoveries, better exploitation of reserves already identified and putting
into production new resources, such as heavy and extra-heavy oils.
Capturing and storing the CO, emitted. Since the previous measures might fail to
-
reduce C02 emissions quickly enough, additional means must be implemented to
reduce them and limit global warming: carbon sinks, C02 capture and geological sto-
rage, carbon recycling.
Consequently, in the spectrum of alternative measures proposed to combat the green-
house effect (energy savings, clean transport, renewable energies, etc.), resorting to C02
capture and geological storage, which amounts to reinjecting into the subsoil as C02 some
of the carbon which has been extracted from it, is fundamentally a transition solution, while
waiting for the substantial availability of new energy forms. Experts consider that C02 cap-
ture and storage technologies could help reduce global C02 emissions by about 20% by
2050, provided that they are ready on industrial scale by 2020. Under these conditions there-
fore, even if significant progress must still be made, it seems difficult to imagine not includ-
ing this option in the fight against climate change.
Capturing and storing C02 is one of IFP’s five strategic priorities. Like the other four -
diversifying fuel sources, developing clean, fuel-efficient vehicles, converting as much raw
material as possible into energy for transport and pushing back the boundaries in oil and gas
exploration and production -, it is part of this context of necessary energy transition imposed
by the risks of depletion of resources and global warming which threaten humanity at the
dawn of this 2 lSfc entury.
Dedicated to C02 capture technologies, this book describes the solutions considered and
reviews the state of the art: some of these technologies are already exploited on an industrial
basis, especially treatment of gases in the oil and gas industry, but their cost and the con-
sumption of natural resources they require must be significantly reduced if they are to be
implemented on large scale for C02 capture.
Preface VII
It aims to identify the work that still lies ahead - and the research efforts to be made - to
develop affordable technologies allowing generalisation of C02 capture facilities through-
out the world.
We hope that it will enable as many people as possible to have a better understanding of
the mechanisms involved as well as the technological and economical challenges still to be
taken up to reach this objective.
Olivier Appert
IFP Chairman and CEO
Contents
Preface ............................................................. V
Introduction ........................................................ IX
Acknowledgements ................................................... XI
ListofAuthors ...................................................... XI11
Chapitre 1
WHY CAPTURE
AND STORE C02?
P . Broutin. P . Coussy
1.1 GLOBALWARMING ..........................................
1.1.1 The Earth is warming up ......................................
1.1.2 Need to limit COz emissions ...................................
1.1.3 International mobilisation .....................................
1.1.3.1 Kyoto Protocol and post-Kyoto negotiations .................
1.1.3.2 European commitments ...............................
1.1.4 The US position and the Asia-Pacific Partnership (APP) on clean development
andclimate ................................................ 7
1.2 HOW TO REDUCE C02 EMISSIONS ............................ 8
1.2.1 Control of energy consumption ................................. 8
I .2 .2 Renewable energies. ......................................... 9
1.2.3 Enhancement of natural C02 sequestration ......................... 11
I .2 .4 Nuclear power ............................................. 11
1.2.5 Change in the fossil energy mix ................................. 11
I .2 .6 C02 capture and storage C02 ................................... 11
1.3 MAIN LINKS OF THE CCS CHAIN .............................. 13
1.3.1 Storage .................................................. 13
1.3.2 Transpo. ................................................. 16
1.3.3 Capture .................................................. 16
References ........................................................... 17
XVI Contents
Chapitre 2
WHERE TO CAPTURE COz?
P. coussy
2.1 C02 FIXED EMISSION SOURCES WORLDWIDE. ................. 19
2.1.1 IPCC special report (2005) ..................................... 19
2.1.2 Petroleum Economist - BP report 2007 ............................ 22
2.1.3 IEA report: trend in C02 emissions from the main fixed sources in the world . 22
2.2 FIXED SOURCES IN FRANCE ................................... 24
2.2.1 C02 emissions in France ....................................... 25
2.2.2 Fixed sources emitting more than 0.1 MtC02 per year in France ........... 26
2.3 COz CAPTURE POTENTIAL IN FRANCE ......................... 29
2.3.1 Situation in 2005 ............................................ 29
2.3.2 Trend in emissions over 2005-2020-2050 ........................... 31
2.3.3 Capture potential in 2020 and 2050 ............................... 32
2.3.3.1 Capture assumptions .................................. 32
2.3.3.2 Capture potential and emissions avoided by industry. ........... 33
2.3.4 Conclusion ................................................ 34
References ........................................................... 35
Chapitre 3
POST-COMBUSTION C02 CAPTURE
F . Lecomte
3.1 PRINCIPLES AND STAKES ..................................... 37
3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF POST-COMBUSTION FLUE GASES ...... 38
3.3 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES POTENTIALLY SUITABLE FOR
POST-COMBUSTION C02 CAPTURE ............................ 41
3.3.1 Absorption processes ......................................... 41
3.3.1.1 Chemical solvent processes ............................. 42
3.3.1.2 Physical solvent processes .............................. 45
3.3.1.3 Mixed solvent processes ................................ 46
3.3.2 Adsorption processes ......................................... 47
3.3.3 Membrane processes .......................................... 50
3.3.4 Cryogenic processes .......................................... 51
3.4 TECHNOLOGIES UNDER DEVELOPMENT FOR
POST-COMBUSTION CO, CAPTURE ............................ 52
3.4.1 Absorption processes ......................................... 52
3.4.1.1 MEA process ....................................... 52
3.4.1.2 Ammonia-based processes .............................. 61
3.4.1.3 Sterically hindered amine-based process .................... 63
3.4.1.4 Cansolv process ...................................... 65
3.4.1.5 Demixing solvents .................................... 65
Contents XVII
3.4.1.6 Amino acid salt-based solvents .......................... 67
3.4.1.7 Ionic liquids. ....................................... 68
3.4.2 Adsorption processes. ........................................ 70
3.4.2.1 Immobilisation of reactive products on solids ................ 70
3.4.2.2 Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs) ...................... 72
3.4.3 Membranes ............................................... 74
3.4.3.1 New membrane materials .............................. 74
3.4.3.2 Membrane contactors ................................. 75
3.4.4 Cryogenics ................................................ 77
3.4.4.1 C02 capture by antisublimation .......................... 77
3.4.4.2 C02 capture by hydrate formation ........................ 78
3.5 CO2CONDITIONING .......................................... 81
3.6 CONCLUSION ................................................ 84
References ........................................................... 85
Chapitre 4
OXY-COMBUSTION CO2 CAPTURE
E . Lebas
4.1 PRINCIPLES AND STAKES .................................... 89
4.2 OXY-COMBUSTION. .......................................... 90
4.2.1 Principle of the process ....................................... 90
4.2.2 Oxygen production .......................................... 91
4.2.2.1 Cryogenics ........................................ 91
4.2.2.2 Alternative oxygen production processes ................... 92
4.2.3 Boiler types ............................................... 94
4.2.3.1 Pulverised Coal (PC) fired boiler ......................... 94
4.2.3.2 Circulating Fluidised Bed (CFB) ......................... 94
4.2.3.3 Flameless oxy-combustion firebox ........................ 97
4.2.4 Technological barriers ........................................ 97
4.3 CHEMICAL LOOPING COMBUSTION .......................... 98
4.3.1 Principle of the process ....................................... 98
4.3.2 Materials implemented ....................................... 100
4.3.3 Reactors .................................................. 101
4.3.3.1 Circulating Fluidised Bed (CFB) ......................... 101
4.3.3.2 Fixed beds ......................................... 102
4.3.3.3 Rotary reactor ...................................... 103
4.3.4 Technological barriers ........................................ 103
4.4 COzCONDITIONING .......................................... 104
4.4.1 C02c onditioning by cryogenic flash ............................. 104
4.4.2 C02 conditioning by multiphase pumping .......................... 105
4.5 DEMONSTRATIONS .......................................... 108
References ........................................................... 108
XVIII Contents
Chapitre 5
PRE-COMBUSTION COZ CAPTURE
P . Broutin
5.1 PRINCIPLES AND STAKES ..................................... 111
5.2 SYNGASPRODUCTION ........................................ 112
5.2.1 Steam reforming ............................................. 112
5.2.1.1 Conventional steam reforming ........................... 113
5.2.1.2 A novel steam reforming technology: membrane reactors ........ 115
5.2.2 Partial oxidation ............................................. 115
5.2.3 Autothermal Reforming (ATR) .................................. 119
5.2.4 Chemical-Looping Reforming ................................... 121
5.3 WATER-GAS SHIFT REACTION ................................ 122
5.4 C02EXTRACTION ............................................. 123
5.5 COzCONDITIONING ........................................... 124
5.6 HYDROGEN COMBUSTION .................................... 125
5.6.1 General ................................................... 125
5.6.2 Technology proposed by Alstom ................................. 127
5.6.3 Technology proposed by Siemens ................................ 129
5.6.4 Conclusion ................................................ 131
5.7 INTEGRATED POWER PRODUCTION PROCESSES
WITH PRE-COMBUSTION COZ CAPTURE ....................... 132
5.7.1 Overview. ................................................. 132
5.7.2 IGCC .................................................... 132
5.7.3 HyGenSys ................................................. 135
References ........................................................... 138
Chapitre 6
CAPTURE AND STORE COZ:
AT WHAT COST?
D . Favreau
6.1 CALCULATION BASES. ........................................ 141
6.1. 1 The economic evaluation criterion: C02 captured or CO2 avoided? ......... 141
6.1.2 Current limitations of the economic evaluation ....................... 143
6.1.3 Calculating the cost per tonne of C02 avoided or captured ............... 143
6.2 COz CAPTURE COSTS ......................................... 144
6.2.1 General aspects ............................................. 144
6.2.2 Capture in the power and heat production sector ...................... 145
6.2.3 Capture in the industrial sector .................................. 149
6.3 COz TRANSPORT COSTS ....................................... 151
6.3.1 C02 land transport ........................................... 151
6.3.2 C02 maritime transport ........................................ 153