Cloud Dynamics, Volume 104, Second Edition

457 Pages·2014·45.316 MB·English

by  Robert A. Houze Jr.

International Geophysics
Volume 104
Cloud Dynamics
Second Edition
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International Geophysics
Volume 104
Cloud Dynamics
Second Edition
Robert A. Houze, Jr.
Department of Atmospheric Sciences
University of Washington
Seattle, Washington
AMSTERDAM (cid:129) BOSTON (cid:129) HEIDELBERG (cid:129) LONDON
NEW YORK (cid:129) OXFORD (cid:129) PARIS (cid:129) SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO (cid:129) SINGAPORE (cid:129) SYDNEY (cid:129) TOKYO
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Dedication
To
Yolanda
Rebecca and Deborah
Gabriel, Margaret, Lucian, Alice, and Elizabeth
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Contents
Dedication v 2.5. PotentialVorticity 31
Preface xiii 2.6. PerturbationFormsoftheEquations 32
ListofSymbols xv 2.6.1. AverageandPerturbationForms
oftheEquationofStateand
ContinuityEquation 32
2.6.2. FluxFormsandLinearization
Part I
oftheThermodynamicand
Fundamentals Water-ContinuityEquations 32
2.6.3. FluxFormandLinearization
1. Types of Clouds in Earth’s oftheEquationofMotion 33
Atmosphere 2.6.4. EddyKineticEnergyEquation 33
3
2.7. OscillationsandWaves 33
1.1. AtmosphericStructureandScales 3 2.7.1. BuoyancyOscillations 33
1.2. CloudTypesIdentifiedVisually 4 2.7.2. GravityWaves 34
1.2.1. Genera,Species,andE´tages 4 2.7.3. InertialOscillations 35
1.2.2. LowClouds 6 2.7.4. Inertio-GravityWaves 36
2.8. AdjustmenttoGeostrophicand
1.2.3. MiddleClouds 10
1.2.4. HighClouds 12 GradientBalance 36
1.2.5. OrographicClouds 13 2.9. Instabilities 38
1.2.6. NoctilucentClouds 16 2.9.1. Buoyant,Inertial,andSymmetric
1.3. PrecipitatingCloudSystems 16 Instabilities 38
1.3.1. MesoscaleConvectiveSystems 17 2.9.2. Kelvin–HelmholtzInstability 40
1.3.2. TropicalCyclones 17 2.9.3. Rayleigh–Be´nardInstability 42
1.3.3. ExtratropicalCyclones 18 2.10. RepresentationofEddyFluxes 44
1.4. SatelliteCloudClimatology 20 2.10.1. K-Theory 44
2.10.2. HigherOrderClosure 45
2. Atmospheric Dynamics 25 2.10.3. LargeEddySimulation 45
2.11. ThePlanetaryBoundaryLayer 45
2.1. TheBasicEquations 25 2.11.1. TheEkmanLayer 45
2.1.1. EquationofMotion 25 2.11.2. Boundary-LayerStability 46
2.1.2. EquationofState 25
2.11.3. TheSurfaceLayer 46
2.1.3. ThermodynamicEquation 25
2.1.4. MassContinuity 26 3. Cloud Microphysics 47
2.1.5. WaterContinuity 26
2.1.6. TheFullSetofEquations 27 3.1. MicrophysicsofWarmClouds 47
2.2. BalancedFlow 27 3.1.1. NucleationofDrops 47
2.2.1. QuasigeostrophicMotion 27 3.1.2. CondensationandEvaporation 49
2.2.2. SemigeostrophicMotions 27 3.1.3. FallspeedsofDrops 50
2.2.3. GradientWindBalance 28 3.1.4. ContinuousCollection 51
2.2.4. HydrostaticBalance 29 3.1.5. StochasticCollection 52
2.2.5. ThermalWind 29 3.1.6. SpontaneousandCollisional
2.2.6. CyclostrophicBalance 29 BreakupofDropsandModification
2.3. AnelasticandBoussinesqapproximations 29 oftheStochasticCollection
2.4. Vorticity 31 Formulation 53
vii
viii Contents
3.2. MicrophysicsofColdClouds 54 4.7. EstimatingArealPrecipitation
3.2.1. HomogeneousNucleation fromRadarData 88
ofIceParticles 54 4.8. DeterminingCloudMorphology
3.2.2. HeterogeneousNucleation fromRadarData 89
andOtherProcessesFormingSmall 4.9. DopplerRadar 89
IceParticlesinClouds 55 4.9.1. RadialVelocity 90
3.2.3. VaporDepositionandSublimation 57 4.9.2. VelocityandRangeFolding 91
3.2.4. AggregationandRiming 58 4.9.3. VerticalIncidenceObservations 91
3.2.5. Hail 60 4.9.4. Range-HeightData 92
3.2.6. IceEnhancement 61 4.9.5. Velocity-AzimuthDisplayMethod 92
3.2.7. FallspeedsofIceParticles 62 4.9.6. MultipleDopplerSynthesis 94
3.2.8. Melting 64 4.9.7. RetrievalofThermodynamicand
3.3. TypesofMicrophysicalProcessesand MicrophysicalVariables 95
CategoriesofWaterSubstanceinClouds 65
3.4. Water-ContinuityEquations 67
Part II
3.5. BinWater-ContinuityModels 68
3.5.1. General 68 Phenomena
3.5.2. BinModelingofWarmClouds 68
3.5.3. BinModelingofColdClouds 69 5. Clouds in Shallow Layers at Low,
3.6. BulkWater-ContinuityModels 70 Middle, and High Levels
101
3.6.1. TheClassicKesslerApproachtoBulk
Water-ContinuityModelingofWarm 5.1. FogandStratusOccurringinaBoundary
PrecipitatingClouds 70 LayerCooledfromBelow 101
3.6.2. MultimomentBulkWater-Continuity 5.1.1. GeneralConsiderations 101
ModelingofWarmClouds 72 5.1.2. TurbulentMixinginFog 102
3.6.3. BulkModelingofColdCloudsBy 5.1.3. RadiationFog 104
ExtendingtheKesslerScheme 74 5.1.4. ArcticStratusandStratocumulus 108
3.7. Water-ContinuityModelingofCold 5.2. StratocumulusForminginBoundary
CloudsUsingGeneralizedMass-Size LayersHeatedfromBelow 111
andArea-SizeRelations 75 5.2.1. Climatology 111
5.2.2. ConceptualModeloftheFormation
4. Remote Sensing of Clouds and
ofaCloudToppedMixedLayer 112
Precipitation 77 5.2.3. MathematicalModelingof
CloudToppedMixedLayer
4.1. Absorption,Scattering,andthe
Formation 114
MicrowaveDomain 78
5.2.4. StratocumuluswithDrizzle 118
4.2. PassiveMicrowaveSensingof
5.2.5. LaterStagesoftheStratocumulus
Precipitation 79
Lifecycle 118
4.3. RadarSensingofCloudsand
5.2.6. CellularStructuresandPatternsin
Precipitation 80
StratocumulusFields 118
4.4. RadarReflectivityfromReturnedPower 82
5.2.7. BoundaryLayerRollsandCloud
4.5. RadarPolarimetry 84
Streets 120
4.5.1. ParametersMeasuredby 5.3. AltostratusandAltocumulus 124
Dual-PolarizationRadar 84
5.3.1. AltostratusandAltocumulus
4.5.2. IdentificationofHydrometeor
ProducedasRemnantsofOther
TypewithDual-PolarizationRadar 85
Clouds 124
4.6. RelatingRadarMeasurementsto
5.3.2. AltocumulusasHighBased
HydrometeorConcentration,
ConvectiveClouds 125
Precipitation,FallVelocity,and
5.3.3. AltostratusandAltocumulus
Cloud-SystemStructure 86
asShallowLayerCloudsAloft 125
4.6.1. Particle-SizeMethod 86
5.3.4. IceParticleGenerationBy
4.6.2. Rain-GaugeMethod 87
AltocumulusElements 127
4.6.3. PolarimetricImprovementofRain
5.3.5. InteractionofAltocumulusand
Estimation 88
LowerCloudLayers 127
Contents ix
5.4. CirriformClouds 127 7.2. ThePressurePerturbationField
5.4.1. Nomenclature 127 AssociatedwithBuoyancy 166
5.4.2. ClimatologyandOriginsof 7.3. EntrainmentandDetrainment 167
CirriformClouds 128 7.3.1. GeneralConsiderations 167
5.4.3. Microphysics,VerticalAirMotions, 7.3.2. EarlyViewsofMixingwith
andRadiationCirriformClouds 130 theCloud’sEnvironment 168
5.4.4. SmallCirriformConvective 7.3.3. MoreRealisticViewsof
Elements—“GeneratingCells” 132 EntrainmentandDetrainment 175
5.4.5. BuoyantAnvilDynamics 133 7.3.4. EffectofEntrainmentonBuoyancy
5.4.6. RadiativeDestabilizationand andDownwardMotionNear
ShearEffectsonaLayerof CloudEdge 176
CirriformCloud 137 7.3.5. LateralVersusCloud-Top
5.4.7. MesoscaleCirculationInducedBy Entrainment 176
RadiativeHeatingofaLayer 7.3.6. ConvectiveCloudinaFixed
ofCirriformCloud 138 Column 177
7.3.7. RepresentationofMixingin
6. Nimbostratus and the Separation
MultidimensionalModelsof
of Convective and Stratiform
ConvectiveClouds 180
Precipitation
141 7.3.8. RepresentationofConvective
CloudsinLargeScaleModels
6.1. DefinitionofStratiformPrecipitation
oftheAtmosphere 182
andHowItDiffersfromConvective
7.4. VorticityandDynamicPressure
Precipitation 142 PerturbationForces 182
6.2. TheContrastingRadar-EchoStructures
7.4.1. TheVorticityApproachto
ofStratiformandConvective
UnderstandingRotationand
Precipitation 144
DynamicPressureinConvective
6.3. MicrophysicalObservationsin
Clouds 182
NimbostratusandImpliedVertical
7.4.2. HorizontalVorticity 182
AirMotions 146
7.4.3. VerticalVorticityIntroducedby
6.4. RoleofConvectioninRegions
TiltingofEnvironmentalHorizontal
ofStratiformPrecipitation 147
Vorticity 183
6.5. StratiformPrecipitationwithShallow
7.4.4. EffectsofVorticesonEntrainment
OverturningConvectiveCellsAloft 147
andPressurePerturbation 183
6.6. StratiformPrecipitationProduced
byDeepConvection 152
8. Cumulonimbus and Severe Storms
6.6.1. ParticleFountainsandthe 187
EvolutionofDeepConvective 8.1. TheBasicCumulonimbusCloud 187
CellsintoNimbostratus 152 8.2. MulticellStorms 190
6.6.2. StratiformPrecipitationProduced 8.3. SupercellStorms 194
byDiscreteRedevelopment 8.4. EnvironmentalConditionsFavoring
ofDeepConvection 154 DifferentTypesofDeepConvective
6.6.3. StratiformPrecipitationProduced Storms 198
byConvectiveRedevelopment 8.5. SupercellDynamics 203
inaVariousWindShear
8.5.1. StormSplittingandPropagation 203
Environments 156
8.5.2. DirectionalShearinthe
6.6.4. MicrophysicsoftheStratiform
Environmentofthe
PrecipitationAssociatedwith
CumulonimbusCloud 204
DeepConvectiveClouds 157
8.5.3. UpdraftRotation 205
6.7. RadiativeEffectsonNimbostratus 161
8.5.4. HelicityandtheStrengthof
6.8. SeparationofConvectiveandStratiform
SupercellUpdraftRotation 207
Precipitation 162
8.5.5. BaroclinicityAssociatedwith
7. Basic Cumulus Dynamics Downdrafts 207
165
8.5.6. TheThreeSourcesofRotation
7.1. Buoyancy 165 inaSupercell 207