Close Reading pages 1

17 Pages·2013·2.23 MB·English

CHAPTER1
as possible,w o
importance of
effect of mono
more obvioust
A f,amousr
lntroductiont o betweenp rosea
to reach acertai
Aspects of Poetry ing directly, whe
too, involvesr ep
The differer
are not indepen
poem or in a pat
by the use of a;
forced by a smo
Elsewhere,a m(
Poetry can be divided into two categories:n arrative and lyric. Narrative poems, fclr example the impressionr
Keats's" The Eve of St. Agnes," tell stories,l ike a novel, and they tend to be long. Epics, such order to show I
as Virgil's Aeneid,F lomer's lliad, or Milton's ParadiseL ost, are narrative poems on a grand impression,a nd
scalet hat recount the exploits of heroes and cover a vast canvass uch as the fate of nations First of all, t
so we will begin
or of mankind as a whole. Another well-known type of narrative poem is the ballad, which
rative language,
tells a humbler story and was originally composed to be sung. Lyric poetry is a vast category
that includes poems rvhoset hemes cover the whole gamut of human emotion and imagina- ually you will cor
tion. Though they can be of any length, lyrics tend to be shorter than narrative poems (and One of the t
can be very brief indeed); they often have a musical quality (the word lyric comesf rom the and for this reas
Greek lyre,a n instrument used to accompany the recital or singing of poems); and they tend
to be more subjectivet han narrative poems, often expressing the feelings or thoughts of a VeEAEUT.nB
speaker.T he lyric is the predominant type of poetry in western literature.
Certain formal characteristics of poetry, such as rhyme or the division into lines, are The choice of v,
encountered only in poems. Other features are simply more frequent in poetry than in types of wordsw
prose,f or example the use of figures of speech,o r attention to rhythm and sotrnd; poets use selectedt o expl
them frequently, to underscore the meaning of their lines. All these elements-repetition reader will be af
of sounds or of a particular rhythm, use of metaphors, symbols and other figures-tend to or concrete, der
draw attention to the languageo f a poem: the reader is attracted not only to the poem's teach or inform'
ideas but also to the way those ideas are expressed.S uch elernents enrich poetic language the presence of
and make the study of poetry very rewarding: you will find, asy ou read poems closely,m any tain words are r
layerso f expressiona nd of meaning. These multiple levels of expression can also lead to a You should cons
certain ambiguity, since the significance of rhythms, sounds, metaphors, and symbolsi s not but also any con
alwaysi mmediately clear. Furthermore, they can often be interpreted differently by differ- Let us take I
ent readers.D ifferent interpretations of poems are valid, as long as there is evidencew ithin In his well-k
the poem tojusti$t them. You should be careful, when discussingt he meaning of a poem, to wishes to conve)
back up your interpretation with details taken from the poem. of daffodils. Ac
Yet other elements of poetry belong as much to prose as to poetry-e.g., syntax (sen- relate to the ide
tence structure) and choice of vocabulary-but in a poem they may function differently
than in prose. In a traditional poem written with lines of regular length, the syntax of a
-^+ ^^i-^i.lo ruith that of the versel ine. oroducins differ-
\PTER1
asp ossible,w ords are often repeated in poetry in order for example to emphasize the
importance of certain words in the context of the poem, or perhaps to achieve an
effect of monotony. Since poems are usually short compared to prose works, it will be
more obvious to the reader if many words are chosen from one semantic field.
A famous twentieth-century French poet, Paul Val6ry, compared the difference
uctiont o betweenp rose and poetry to that between walking and dancing. The walker normally aims
to reach a certain destination by the most direct route, as prose tlpically renders its mean-
rf Poetry ing directly, whereas dancing progressesi n a roundabout and repetitive manner. poetry,
too, involvesr epetition of various kinds, and like dancing it is based on rhythm and music.
The different elements of a poem-vocabulary, sounds,r hythm, figurative language-
are not independent of one another but work togethetro achieve a certain effect in the
poem or in a Part of the poem. For example, a poem can convey an impression of calm
by the use of appropriate words, but this choice of vocabulary will piobably be rein-
forced by a smooth, flowing rhythm and by soft sounds rather than iharp, hard ones.
Elsewhere,a more staccator hythm and harder sounds might be employed to convey
poems,f or example the impression of rapid movement. A close reading of a poem proceeds line by line in
be long. Epics,s uch order to show how different poetic elements work together to produce the desired
: poems on a grand impression, and how such effects might vary as the poem develops.
s the fate of nations First of all, however, the student needs to know what kind of effects to look for, and
is the ballad,w hich so we will begin by isolating the different elements of a poem, such as vocabulary, figu-
try is a vastc ategory rative language, rhythm, structure, and versification, on the understanding that event-
totion and imagina- ually you will consider them all simultaneously, when analyzing a poem line by line.
Lrrativep oems (and One of the easieste lements to observe and analyzei n a poem is its choice of words,
yncc omesf rom the and for this reason we will begin with a study of vocabulary.
ems);a nd they tend
gs or thoughtso f a }|.eE*Hrilanx
sion into lines, are The choice of vocabulary in a poem has an immediate effect on the reader. Different
. in poetry than in tFpeso f words will be used, for example, to create an atmosphere of mystery, from those
rd sound;p oets use selected to explain an idea, describe a natural scene, or celebrate aj"yf"l event. The
)ments-repetition
reader will be affected differently by vocabulary that is simple or highly literary, abstract
:r figures-tend to or concrete, descriptive, affective (concerning the emotions), or didactic (aiming ro
lnly to the poem's teach or inform). lVhen analyzinga poem's vocabulary,i t is essentialn ot only to observe
:h poetic language the presence of certain types of words but also to suggestw hy they were chosen. If cer-
oemsc losely,m any tain words are repeated, you should try to find the possible reasonsf or this repetition.
r can also lead to a You should consider, also, not only the denotations of words (their dictionary mlaning),
and symbolsi s not but also any connotations (wider associations) they may have for you or for others.
fferently by differ- Let us take some examples.
is evidencew ithirr In his well-known poem "I wandered lonely as a cloud," William Wordsworth clearly
ning of a poem, to wishes to convey to the reader the feeling ofjoy brought to him by the sight of a "host',
of daffodils. Accordingly, the words he chooses to describe the daffodils almost all
-e.9.,syntax( sen- relate to the idea of happiness. This is especially evident in the third stanza:
Lnctiond ifferently
h, the syntax of a Thew avesb esideth emd ancedb; utt hey
prodtrcine differ- ' Outdidth es parklinwga vesin glee:
ried a vocabulary
A poetc ouldn otb utb eg ay,
lntroduction to Aspectso f Poetry
ln sucha jocundc ompany:
I gazed-andg azed-butl ittlet hought Tob ent
Whatw ealthth es howt o meh adb rought. And
t
I
The concentration of positivew ords here ("danced," "sparkling," "glee," "guyi''Jocund," withal
"wealth") unmistakably illustrarest he poet's happinessa t the sight of the daffodils, both And
at the time and later, through memory. Words like "glee," "gay," and 'ijocund" are clearly Untilth
affective-relating to emotion; "sparkling" is both descriptive, of wavesi n sunlight, and rof !
affective,s ince it contributes to the mood of happiness.
Sometimes,a poem may employ many words notjust from one semantic field (area Nearly e--ll
of meaning), as in the above example, but from two contrasting fields. An examination of the wafd
the vocabulary can help to reveal the contrast. For example, in William Blake's enig- warrntha
matic poem "The Sick Rose," the vocabulary can be divided between two areaso f mean- and nu
ing, negative and positive: sion of "r
easyt o sf
O roset,h oua rts ick. nation, if
Thei nvisiblwe orm and read
Thatf liesi n then ight Very
ln theh owlings torm thou rnaj
own sW
Hasf oundo utt hyb ed time of p
Ofc rimsojno y,
Andh isd arks ecrelto ve Thattir
wheni
Doesth y lifed estroy.
Upontl
This is a mysteriousp oem, in which the rose and the worm seem to represent rynnbols, Bareru
perhaps of sexual love. We will discusss yrnbolism later, but, for now an examination of it' ''
the vocabulary alone can help to elucidate a basic contrast between a negative area of Insteadrc
sickness,d arkness,a nd destruction, and positive connotations relating to love and sexual words sq
pleasure. Apparently the rose (perhaps syrnbolizing a woman) is being defiled or dese- "cold,ni l
crated by the "love" of the worm. Re-read the poem and consider into which category
(negative or positive) you would assign each of the underlined words; you will probably
find that there's an almost equal number in each category, illustrating the tension in the
poem between light and dark, good and evil, pleasure and destruction. When i
stepsv ery o
help to ma
devicesw ill
Different poets may use vocabulary to emphasize different aspects of the same
sounds in tl
phenomenon.John Keats's "To Autumn" depicts fall a$ a season of plenty, espe-
fullness),a r
cially in the first stanza. So many words here evoke ripeness and plenty; a few
the time be
have been underlined; see how many more you can find and underline them too:
one by one,
tive langual
Seasoonf mistsa ndm ellowfr uilfulness!
A dictit
Closeb osom-frienodf them aturingsu n;
always avoi
Conspirinwgi thh imh owt o loada ndb less
explain the
Withf ruitt hev inest hatr oundt het hatch-eversu n;
highly imag
. l' ,.;
/3:, ,",Ipb end.witha pplest he mossedc ottage-trees,
it* Andf rllallfruiwt ithr ipenestso thec ore;
',ri., Tos welltheg ourda, ndp lumpt heh azesl hells
" "guy,'' ljocund," -",' Witha sweekt ernel;tos etb uddingm ore,
te daffodils, both , Ands tillm ore,latefrlo wersfo rt heb ees,
cund" are clearly r Untillh eyt hinkw armd aysw illn everc ease,
in sunlight, and . , Fors ummehr aso 'er-brimmetdh eirc lammyc ells.
..:.
rantic field (area Nearly eyery line contains an expression depicting the idea of fullness. Also, all
n examination of the words are very concrete: we not only infer an idea of plenty but also sense the
nm Blake's enig- warmth and lushness of the scene byvisualizing the grapes and apples, gourds
o areaso f mean- and nuts. Other elements of the poem, such as the sound$, back up the impres-
sion of "mellow fruitfulness," but even on the basis of the vocabulary alone, it is
easyt o see that the poet wishes to emphasize the image of autumn as the culmi-
nation, in nature, of the growing season:e verything is ripe and round and soft
and ready to be harvested. It is a seasono f warmth and sweetness.
Very different is the picture of falt in Shakespeare'ss onnet 'That time of year
_
thou may's-ti l me behold." Feeling the approach of old age, he compares his
own stage in life to the sea$ono f autumn, but rather than seeing autumn as a
time of plenty he views it as a forerunner of winter and of death:
Thatt imeo f yeart houm ay'sitn meb ehold
Wheny ellowl eaveso, r none,o r few'd o hang
Upont hoseb oughsw hichs hakea gainstth ec old,
lresent qnnbols, Barer uinedc hoirsw, herel atet hes weetb irdss ang.
examination of
regative area of Instead of the lush images created by the vocabulary of the Keats poem, we find
love and sexual wolds bareness and destiiution: 'lellow leaves," "none,;' "few " "shake,"
defiled or dese- "cold,"r y*gbgaeres,ti"n "gru ined.."
which category
ru will probably
3 tension in the
When attempting to give a close reading of a poem, then, one of the first useful
steps very often is to examine its vocabulary; an analysiso f the types of words used can
help to make sense of the poem, as in the examples above. Of course, other literary
file same devicesw ill contribute towards the overall effect (the alliteration of the /m/ and,/ n/
mH espe- sounds in the first five lines of "To Autumn" certainly helps to convey an impression of
yi'af ew fullness), and when analyzing a poem you will take all elements into account; but for
e them too: the time being we are separating the different features of a poem in order to examine,
one by one, the effects produced by each slsrnsnl-yocabulary, sounds, rhythm, figura-
tive language, etc.-before putting everything together in a complete analysis.
A dictionary is often essentiali n order to write a close reading. Though you should
always avoid paraphrasing the whole passage, it may, occasionally, be necessary to
explain the meaning of individual words, for one reason or another. Poets-especially
highly imaginative foets-occasionally invent words, which are called neologisms, and
you should attempt to interpret the possible meaning of such words. The etymological
8 Introductiont o Aspectso f'Poetry
meaning of a word (i.e., the meaning it originally had in an-othera ge or another lan-
guage) may throw light on a poet's understanding of certain terms. A good dictionary publi
will give etymological meanings. A poet from an earlier era, such as Shakespeare,m ay ever}
use words that have become archaic in modern English, in which case you should ble,et
explain their meaning. At the other extreme, a contemporary author may produce ao*o
slang expressionso r vocabulary belonging to a certain dialect or geographical area that read.l
should also be elucidated in a close reading. Often, the explanation might be that the belon
poet is trying to convey the voice of a certain kind of speaker.I n addition, poets some- .1
times employ specialized or technical terms, as in Henry Reed's "Naming of Parts."
wfi
Here are the first and final stanzas:
ate
abi
Todayw e haven amingo f parts.Y esterday,
bei
We had dailyc leaningA. nd tomorrowm orning, *+
We shallh avew hat to do afterf iring.B utt oday,
ontr
Todayw e haven amingo f parts.J aponica ,,'
myl
Glistensli kec orali n allof the neighboringg ardens,
inlir
And todayw e haven amingo f parts.
ah€i
patf
rH
Theyc alli t easintgh eS pringit: i sp erfectleya sy
fsr.tl
lf youh avea nys trengtihn y ourt humbl:i ket heb olt,
of y.t
Andt heb reecha,n dt hec ocking-pieacen,d t hep ointo f balance,
spril
Whichin ourc asew eh aven otg ot;andth ea lmond-blossom
whili
Silenitn allo f theg ardenasn dt heb eesg oingb ackwardasn df orwards,
smal
Fort odayw e haven amingo f parts.
with'
putn
The whole poem contains specialized vocabulary dealing with firearms, most of
foryy
which is summarized in the final stanza ("the bolt . . the breech . . the cocking
with
piece . . . the point of balance"). It is necessaryt o explain not what each word signi-
theh
fies exactly, but to point out that they are all technical words concerning firearms
(whose presetlce was already suggestedi n the first stanzab y the line: 'And tomorrow behir
nanU
morning , / We shall have what to do after firing"). This clarifies the situation of the
good
speaker,w ho is apparently learning-along with his companions-how to fire a rifle,
in some kind of military context. Next you may point out the essential contrast
't,
between the set of vocabulary relatins to rifles and another set of words connected The coi
with nature and flowers (e.g.,'Japonica" (a flowering shrub), "gardens," "almond- address
blossom," "bees"). Ary valid interpretation of the poem has to take into account these a child;
two conflicting setso f vocabulary, the technical and the natural, the death-dealing and meraph
the life-giving. event,{
rn an al
to *.*.fi
.
underli:
Poetsm ay employ a literary vocabulary,a s in most of the poems quoted above, or invo
deliberately choose a more familiar, conversational, or colloquial type of speech, ("bic).q,t
either to appeal more readily to readers or to ccinveyt he tone of the poem's the find
speaker.o r for some other effect. Consider the following poem by Linda Pastan, anrl r,nd
Vocabulary
published in 1988 and entitled "To a Daughter Leaving Home." You will find that
everyword of this poem might be used in everyday conversation (with the possi-
ble exception of "loping," which is neverthelessa common word). Some of these
common, coll<lquial words have been underlined in the first few lines. As you
read the poem, underline other words in the following lines that you consider to
belong to "normal," everyday speech.
WhenI taughyt ou
ate iohtto ride
a bicyclelo, pinga long
besidey ou
asy ouw obbleda way
;;ffi
myo wnm oulhr ounding
in surpriswe heny oup ulled
aheadd ownt hec urved
patho f thep ark,
I keptw aiting
fort het hud
ofyourc rasha sI
sprintedto catchu p,
whiley oug rew
smallemr, oreb reakable
withd istance,
pumpin$p,u mpinE
fory ourl ife,s creaming
withl aughter,
theh airf lapping
behindy oul ikea
handkerchiwefa ving
goodbye.
The conversational style of this poem seems totally appropriate, since it is
addressedt o the poeis daughter, and because the situ;do; it describes-teaching
a child to ride a bike (though of course in the context of the poem this is also a
'rnetaphor
for growing up and leaving home)-represents an everyday,f amily
event.C ertain words are repeated here: the roundness of the wheels is reflected
in an amusing way in the rounding of the mother's mouth when she is surprised
to-.seeh er daughter actually cycle away, "pumping, pumping"; here the repetition
, underlines the repetitive nature of the action of rycling, and also the effort
.involved.A guir, the vocabulary of this poem is quite concrete and matter-of-fact
,,{l'bicycler"'k heels," "park," "thud," "crash,'o."hairr""h andkerchief"), except for
the final word, "goodbye," which is abstract and loaded with emotional impact,
^-l -^f,--- l-^^l' +^ tl-^ ll^^ ^f (I^^';*^ L.^-ott in tlra ^^o-tc fifla
10 Introductiont o Aspectso f Poetry
As you study a poem's vocabulary,you should consider not only the obvious meaning,
or denotation, of a word, but also any connotations the word may have for the reader'
poetry often plays with the multiple meanings of words. Some may be totally irrelevant and
can be ruled out, but if two or three possible senseso f a word seem valid, you should not
feel obliged to choosebetweetnh em. You should consider them all, because multiple signifi-
cations enrich a poem; all may be implied. Enraptured with the magical power of words,
poets often ,rr" th.* in original ways,p lapng imaginativelywith all their possible meanings.
poets often allude in their work to other works of literature or to historical or mytho-
logical events or characters. Such allusions suggest a comparison benveen the poem in
*fri.t they appear and the work or event they refer to. They often shed light on some
aspect o,. of the poem at hand. Keats's "Ode to a Nightingale" contains many
allusions.T -*h.,ein fgir st stanza,for example, mentions Lethe, the river of forgetfulness, accord-
ing to Greek mythology, that ran thiough the Underworld and whose waters caused those
who drank to forget their past. This allusion fits in with the references in this stanza to 1. What kinr
,,hemlock,'a nd *Jpiut."-o1her beveragest hat produce forgetfulness and numbness, to the cre
2. What eflr
common
3. What are
Exerciseso n Vocabulary line 3?
Read the following poems. What impression does each one produce on you and to what 4. What is s
extent is the po.ir;, vocabulary responsible for this impression? Use the questions to 5. What cor
help you. of the pc
"divine"i
a) Wild Nights-Wild Ni$hts! the poer
Werel with thee theme?
Wild NiEhtss houldb e
Our luxurY!
Futile-the Winds- fMAsrnv
To a Hearti n Port-
Donew ith the ComPass-
i The terms il
Donew ith the Chart! i
without the
Rowin$i n Eden- and this bri
Ah,t he Sea! the action c
10
MightI but moor-Tonight- easilv visual:
ln thee!
EmilyD ickinson
1. \Ahat significance do you seei n the repetition of certain words in this poem?
2. To what semantic field do most of the words in the last two stanzasb elong? What Wouldr
much moft
reason:^".
I:::::}tT: rasrs ranzaa nd what does it add ro rhe poem's impact? the daffodi
Pastan'sn o
Imagery 11
ls sinkingd own in itst ranquillity;
The gentlenesso f heavenb roodso 'ert he Sea:
Listen!them ightyB eingi s awake,
And doth with hise ternalm otionm ake
A soundl iket hunder-everlastingly.
DearC hild!d earG irl!t hatw alkestw ith me here,
lf thou appearu ntouchedb y solemnt hought,
Thy naturei s not thereforel essd ivine: 10
Thou liesti n Abraham'sb osoma llthe year,
And worship'sta t the Temple'sin ners hrine,
God beingw ith thee when we know it not.
WilliamW ordsworth
1. What kind of atmosphere is created in the first few lines?W hich words contribute
to the creation of that atmosphere?
2. What effect does the word "beauteous" have on you, as opposed to the more
common beautiful?
3. rv\hat are the literal and metaphorical connotations of the word "Breathless"i n
line 3?
4. \Ahat is suggestedb y the verb "broods"?
5. \tVhatc onnection is there between the following words that appear in lines 1-11
of the poern-"holy," "Nun," "adoration," "heaven," "mighty Being," "eternal,"
"divine"? How does this semantic field (area of meaning) relate to the theme of
the poem as a whole? \Ahat allusion in the last few lines also connects to this
theme? r
:
l-unEeny
The terms imagery and image refer simply to the concept of a picture in words, with or
without the benefit of figurative language. Imagery provides a description of a scene,
and this brings the scene closer to the readeq so that the latter feels more involved in
the action of the poem. Severalo f the poems already quoted contain images; one can
easilyv isualize Wordsworth's famous daffodils, for example:
Besidteh el akeb, eneatthh et rees,
Flutterinagn dd ancingin theb reeze.
Wouldn't you agree that this image allows you to see the daffodils in your mind's eye
much more forcibly than if the poet had simply said he had observed the wind blowing
the daffodils? The reader can easily imagine, too, the daughter addressed in Linda
Pastan'sp oem, who
12 Introductiont o Aspectso f Poetry
These lines not only present the reader with a clear picture, but also suggest,b y the
use of the word "wobbled," the mother's anxiety at her daughter's precariousness- Thena
both when she was learning to ride a bicycle and now that she is leaving home to Threef
launch into a life of her own. A tap ai
A poet may use imagery to emphasize a certain aspect of a scene. Henry Reed's Andb h
speaker in "Naming of Parts," describing Andai
Thant h
. . .thea lmond-blossom
Silenitn allo ft heg ardenasn dt heb eesg oingb ackwardasn df orwards,
stressesth e useful industry of the natural world, represented by the bees, as compared
with the potentially life-threatening activities of the soldiers. We saw in the section on
FrcuRArlr
vocabulary that Shakespeare,i n "That time of year thou may'st in me behold," paints a
sad picture of autumn,
Figurative la
Wheny ellowl eaveso,r noneo, r few,d o hang more imagir
Upont hoseb oughs, simile, meta
and litotes;:
that immediately attunes the reader to the somber theme of the poem, whereas Keats's involve subs
"To Autumn" usesv ocabulary to create images of plenty. Obviously, there is a certain literal mean
overlap between discussion of vocabulary and of imagery, since images are formed by the way sent
words; indeed, sometimes the most appealing aspecto f an image is the poet's imagina- and we have
tive use of words in creating it. Keats,f or example, in "Ode to a Nightingale," evokesa it pays atter
glasso f wine "With beaded bubbles winking at the brim," and describesa wild rose as Figurative lz
"The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves." Can you enjoy the use of words in Poer ro exPt
these lines?D o they help you to visualizet he glasso f wine or the flowers? When a
Imagery can also serve to structure a poem, as in Shakespeare's" That time of year out the pres
thou may'st in me behold," or in Byron's "She Walks in Beauty" where the whole poem Rather than
revolvesa round the contrast between the images of "dark" and "bright" introduced in for example
the first stanza. ful, more <
Alternativel.
Similea n
Images do not necessarilyi nvolve comparison between two things, as in a metaphor
or simile; they are simply pictures, and as such they often involve the senseo f The best-kn,
sight, but you will also find images that conjure up a taste or a scent, auditory two things, 1
images, and tactile images (concerning the senseo f touch). In the following while a met
poem, "Meeting at l..light" by Robert Browning, can you find images pertaining to examples of
the senseso f sight, touch, smell and hearing? Mark the poem according to which
sensesy ou find illustrated.
Theg rays eaa ndt he longb lackl and;
Andt hey ellowh alf-moonla rgea ndl ow;
Andt hes tartledli ttlew avesth atl eap
ilP ::I'l sl"il::": . . 'l::1ll.''^l.:^ * ,
Figurative Language l3
Thena mileo f warms ea-scentebde ach;
Threef reldsto crossti lla farma ppears;
A tap at thep ane,t heq uicks harps cratch
Andb lues purto f a lightedm alch,
Anda voicel esslo ud,t hroughit sj oysa ndf ears,
Thant het woh eartsb eatinge acht o each!
LnruauAGE
Figurative language is used in prose but much more commonly in poetry; it implies a
more imaginative use of language than normal, conventional usage. Figures include
simile, metaphor and symbol; anaphora, oxymoron, antithesis and paradox; hyperbole
and litotes; aPostrophe and personification. Some figures of speech, also called tropes,
involve substituting certain words for others or giving them a significance beyond tireir
literal meaning; others, such as anaphora and antithesis, depend more on syntax, on
the way sentenceso r lines are constructed. Figures of speech enrich poetic language-
and we have seen that poetry tends, more than prose, to place value on langua[e iLeH;
it pays attention to the way things are expressed as much as to what is expressed.
Figurativel anguage often reinforces a thought, a mood, or an emotion, allowing the
poet to exPressh imself or herself in a more forceful, original, beautiful or moving way.
\Ahen analyzing a poem containing figurative language, you should not only point
out the presenceo f a figure of speech,b ut also explain what it contributes to the poem.
Rathert han simply saying," There is a metaphor in line 6," you should attempt toshow,
for example,h ow this metaphor reflects the speaker'sm ood; or how it is more beauti-
ful, more original, or more striking, than a literal expression would have been.
Alternativelyy, ou may want to criticize the metaphor: not all metaphors are successful.
Similea nd Metaphor
The best-knownf igures of speech are simile and metaphor. Both these figures compare
twot hings,b ut a simile does so explicitly, by introducing a word such as "like" or:'as,"
while a metaphor does so by directly substituting one word for another. We can see
exampleosf both in the first stanzao f Wordsworth's poem about daffodils:
I wanderedl onelya s a cloud
Thatf loatso n higho 'erv alesa nd hills,
When all at onceI sawa crowd,
A hosto f goldend affodils;
Besideth e lake,b eneatht he trees,
Flutteringa nd dancingi n the breeze.